summary是一种对原始文献（或文章）的基本内容进行浓缩的语义连贯的短
文。它以迅速掌握原文内容梗概为目的，不加主观评论和解释，但必须简明、确切地表述原文的重要内容。
摘要写作（summary writing）是一种控制性的作文形式，它能使学生通过阅读原文，吸收原文的文章结构与语言方面的长处，写出内容一致、结构近似、语言简洁的短文。另外，对培养学生善于抓住文章重点的能力也有很大帮助，有利于他们在实际写作中避免面面俱到，事无巨细，一一罗列的不良倾向。这种写作既要准确理解原文，又要能综合概括；既能培养欣赏能力，又能训练书面表达能力。因此，用英文写摘要，对学习英语写作的学生来说，不失为一种切合实际的方法。
下面谈谈怎么写好英文摘要。
1）细读原文。首先要仔细阅读全篇作品，然后对作品进行整体分析，掌握原文总的意思和结构，明确全文的主题（the maintheme）和各段的段落大意（the main idea）。
2）弄清要求。搞清楚是写全文概要，还是写某一部分的概要，或者就某些问题写出要点。
3）列出原文要点。分析原文的内容和结构，将内容分项扼要表述并注意在结构上的顺序。在此基础上选出与文章主题密切相关的部分。
4）草拟写作提纲并写出初稿。将挑选出的要点作为框架草拟详细的提纲，以所列的提纲为依据写出摘要的初稿。在写作时要特别注意下面几点： （1）摘要应包括原文中的主要事实（main facts）；略去不必要的细节（unnecessary details）。
（2）安排好篇幅的比例。摘要应同原文保持协调，即用较多的文字写重要内容，用较少的文字写次要内容。
（3）注意段落的连贯和句子的衔接。要用适当的转折词语贯通全文，切忌只简单地写出一些互不相干的句子。
（4）尽可能用自己的话来写，但不排斥用原文的某些词句。 （5）计算词数，看是否符合规定的词数要求。
摘要是对一篇文章的主题思想的简单陈述。它用最简洁的语言概括了原文的主题。写摘要主要包括三个步骤：（1）阅读；（2）写作；（3）修改成文。 第一步：阅读
A．认真阅读给定的原文材料。如果一遍不能理解，就多读两遍。阅读次数越多，你对原文的理解就越深刻。
B．给摘要起一个标题。用那些能概括文章主题思想的单词、短语或短句子作为标题。也可以采用文中的主题句作为标题。主题句往往出现在文章的开头或结尾。一个好标题有助于确定文章的中心思想。
C．现在，就该决定原文中哪些部分重要，哪些部分次重要了。对重要部分的主要观点进行概括。
D．简要地记下主要观点——主题、标题、细节等你认为对概括摘要重要的东西。 第二步：动手写作
A. 摘要应该只有原文的三分之一或四分之一长。因此首先数一下原文的字数，然后除以三，得到一个数字。摘要的字数可以少于这个数字，但是千万不能超过这个数字。
B. 摘要应全部用自己的话完成。不要引用原文的句子。
C. 应该遵循原文的逻辑顺序。这样你就不必重新组织观点、事实。
D. 摘要必须全面、清晰地表明原文所载的信息，以便你的读者不需翻阅原文就可以完全掌握材料的原意。
E. 写摘要时可以采用下列几种小技巧： 1) 删除细节。只保留主要观点。
2) 选择一至两个例子。原文中可能包括5个或更多的例子，你只需从中筛选一至二个例子。
3) 把长段的描述变成短小、简单的句子。如果材料中描述某人或某事用了十个句子，那么你只要把它们变成一两句即可。
4) 避免重复。在原文中，为了强调某个主题，可能会重复论证说明。但是这在摘要中是不能使用的。应该删除那些突出强调的重述句。 5) 压缩长的句子。如下列两例：
“His courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lion-like.”
可以概括为：”He was very brave in battle.”
“He was hard up for money and was being pressed by his creditor.” 可以概括为：“He was in financial difficulties.”
6) 你还可以使用词组代替整句或者从句。请看下面的例子：
“Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, Lushan Mountain, and Mount Huang, were visited by only a few people in the past. Today, better wages, holidays with pay, new hotels on these mountains, and better train and bus services, have brought them within reach of many who never thought of visiting them ten years ago.”
可以概括为：”Beautiful mountains like Mount Tai, once visited by only a few people, are today accessible to many, thanks to better wages, paid holidays, new hotels and better transportation services.”
7) 使用概括性的名词代替具体的词，比如：
“She brought home several Chinese and English novels, a few copies of Time and Newsweek and some textbooks. She intended to read all of them during the winter vocation.”
可以概括为：”She brought home a lot of books to read during the vocation.” 8） 使用最短的连接词。比如，可以使用but, then, thus, yet, though，不能使用at the same time, in the first place, because of these, on the other hand等较长的连接词。通常，使用分号就能够达成使用连接词的效果。
9) 文章中的第一人称说的话通常在摘要中转换成第三人称，从而把大段的对白简化，比如：
Kate looked at Paul disapprovingly: You use much too much salt on your food, Paul — it’s not good for you!” Paul put down his knife and frowned:”Why on earth not! If you didn’t have salt on your food it would taste awful… like eating cardboard or sand… just imagine bread without salt in it, or potatoes or pasta cooked without salt!” Kate was patient. She didn’t want to quarrel with Paul. She wanted to persuade him. She said firmly:”But too much salt is bad for you. It cause high blood pressure and latter on, heart-attacks. It also disguises the taste of food, the real tastes which are much more subtle than salt, and which we have lost the sensitivity to appreciate any more.”
可以用第三人称概括为：
Kate suggested to Paul that he should eat less salt. She thought that eating too much salt would do hard to Paul’s health and that it could reduce the real tastes of food. But Paul disagreed. He said that food without salt would be tasteless. 第三步：修改成文
草稿拟好以后，对它进行修改。首先，与原文比较看是否把所有重要的观点都概括了，摘要中的观点是否与原文中的完全一致。其次，如果摘要中出现了不必要的词汇、短语或长句子，删除它们。第三，检查拼写、语法和标点符号的错误。最后，保持语言简单明了。
经过上述步骤和方法，一篇摘要就可以完成了。
How to write a summary What’s a summary?
A summary is a compact form of the main points of a longer work. Writing summaries is useful to you in that it helps you to develop the ability to grasp quickly and accurately the central idea of the piece that you read and capability to present it in a clear, concise and effective way. Important points for consideration
1) The length of a summary is usually not more than one-third or one-fourth of that of the original piece.
2) Write the summary in your words. It should not be a mere collection of phrases and sentences from the original piece.
3) The summary should be a good piece in its own right in the sense that it observes the principle of unity, coherence, clarity, etc.
4) Follow the logical order of the original piece and try to convey its message fully and clearly.
The process of writing a summary
1) Read the original text thoroughly and carefully to get the whole picture—the subject, the thesis and the main supporting points( in many cases they are stated in the topic sentences at the beginning or end of a paragraph).
Reread it if necessary.
2) Underline the thesis of the whole piece and the main point of each paragraph or section if they are directly stated, and sum them up briefly in your own words. You may use some key words, phrases or short sentences in your own sum-up work.
3) Examine the thesis and main supporting points and decide what is comparatively less important and can be omitted without much harm done to the basic message of the original text.
4) Think of a title for your summary according to your comprehension of the original text.
5) Express what is not omitted in your own words. Keep in mind that the points, facts and even the order of points and facts must correspond with those of the original. Your personal ideas and attitudes must not be thrust into the summary.
6) In the process of writing a summary, you may do the following things to the original,
Omit some of the details. Reduce the examples. Simplify the descriptions.
Use words and phrases to replace wordy sentences. Use general words instead of concrete words. Change the direct speech into indirect speech.
7) Proofread what you have written, paying special attention t grammatical and spelling mistakes. Make sure that your language is idiomatic.
How to Write a Good Summary
A summary is a brief restatement of the essential thought of a longer composition. It reproduces the theme of the original with as few words as possible. When one writes a summary, one should not interpret or comment. All one has to do is to give the gist of the author’s exact and essential meaning.
1. Uses of Summary Writing
(1) Summary writing is a very good exercise for improving reading comprehension. Some students read carelessly, and gain only a vague idea of what they have read. Summary writing can force them to try to understand what they read, for no one can write a summary of any passage unless he has grasped its meaning. So summarizing is also training in concentration of attention. It requires one to read with the mind, as well as with the eye, on the page.
(2) Summary writing is also helpful to composition writing. It trains one to express one’s thought clearly, concisely and effectively. It is an excellent corrective of vague and disorderly thinking and loose and diffuse writing. When writing a summary, one has to work within strict limits. One must express a certain meaning in a fixed number of words. So it is important to choose words carefully, to make sentences with an eye to accuracy and brevity, and to write the summary in logical order.
(3) Summary writing has practical uses. The ability to grasp quickly and accurately what is read, or heard, and to reproduce it in a clear and concise way is of great value to people of many professions. For scientists, businessmen, lawyers, and government officials this ability is not only important, but necessary. 2. Procedure
(1) Reading
A. First read the passage through carefully to get the gist of it. If reading it once is not sufficient to give you a clear understanding of it, read it over again. The more you read it, the more familiar to you will be its subject, and what is said about the subject.
B. Give a title to your summary. Think of some word, phrase or short sentence that will sum up briefly the main idea of the passage. Sometimes what is called a topic sentence may be used. The topic sentence may be found at the beginning or at the end of the passage.
To find a suitable title will help you to define what exactly the subject, or main theme, of the passage is.
C. You should now be in a position to decide what parts of the passage are essential and what parts are comparatively unimportant and can be omitted without much loss.
D. Jot down in brief notes the main points—the subject, the title, and the details which you consider essential or important.
(2) Writing
A. A summary should usually be about one-third to one-fourth as long as the original passage. So count the number of words in the passage and divide it by three. You may use fewer words than the number prescribed, but in no case may you exceed the limit.
B. The summary should be all in your own words. It must not be a patchwork made up of phrases and sentences quoted from the original passage.
C. You should follow the logical order of the original passage, if possible (and desirable). Ideas and facts need not be rearranged. D. The summary should be self-contained, that is, it must convey the message of the original fully and clearly, so that your reader need no reference to the original to understand what its main ideas are. E. Summary writing is an exercise in compression. In writing a summary, you may:
1. Omit the details. Only the important points should be included
in the summary; all the details that explain the main points can be left out.
2. Reduce the examples. Out of five or six examples given in the
original passage one or two may be chosen for the summary; the rest are to be omitted.
3. Simplify the descriptions. If in the passage there are ten
sentences describing a person or an object, it will be enough to keep one or two in the summary.
4. Eliminate all repetitions. Sometimes a statement is repeated for
emphasis. This is not necessary in a summary. Sometimes an idea is repeated in different words. Such a veiled repetition should also be avoided.
5. Compress wordy sentences and change phrases to words. May
also make phrases do the work of clauses or sentences. 6. Use general words instead of specific words.
7. Use the shortest possible transitions. For example, but, then,
thus, yet, and for, can be used in place of longer transitions like at the same time, on the other hand, etc. 8. Put the main points of a dialog in indirect speech.
(3) Revision
Revise your draft. Compare it carefully with the original to see that you have included all the important points. If it is too long, further compress it by omitting unnecessary words and phrases or by remodeling sentences. Correct all mistakes in spelling, grammar and idiom, and see that it is properly punctuated. Make the language simple and direct.
浅谈英文SCI论文的Abstract和Summary的区别
方法/步骤
摘要 （或文摘），也就是英文的 Abstract顾名思义，是一篇文章摘出来的要点。其内容讲究的是对文章内容的高度压缩，强调的是对文字本身的概括，不能夹带图表、参考文献。摘要（Abstract）写好了很不简单，原因是其对文数的限制比较严格。一般SCI英文论文摘要允许200 - 300字，很少有超过500字的。摘要不论是在书里还是论文中，都是放在文前。许多SCI期刊对摘要的格式有不同的要求，比如结构摘要，非结构摘要等。是出于出版形式的考虑，本质和目的不变。
提要（或简介），即英文的 Summary ：既然称之为提要，即包含提炼和要点两个方面。在科技文献和教科书中，提要强调对研究课题内容的概括，比如实验内容、目的、研究的展望等方面的简述。提要对字数的要求比较灵活，可长可短。既可以图文并茂，也可以广征博引。既可放在文前，也可以置于文后。和摘要 Abstract 相比，提要 Summary 更普及常用，不论是在学术界还是日常交流中都会经常出现，是个总结就可以称之为 Summary。
对于综述文章，个人以为，摘要（Abstract）和提要（Summary）之间的区别不是小了或是模糊不清了，而是更加明显了。综述文章要大量引用前人的成果和文献，篇幅比一般的论文长很多。摘要（Abstract）对文字的精炼程度要求更高，一字千金。句式和用词都很讲究，要用简洁的描述，把文章所讲的内容概括给读者。但如果要写综述文章的提要（Summary），虽然对句式和语法也有要求，但比摘要容易，描述范围也大一些。比如综述文章的背景，构思的来龙去脉，以及采用的方法等等。篇幅可以比摘要长，形式也可以灵活掌握，比如加些图表甚至公式，有利于读者的理解和记忆。
所以SCI论文要求的摘要（Abstract），不论是结构摘要还是非结构摘要，都不同于提要（Summary）。一旦弄明白两者间的区别，怎么写就是水到渠成的事了。至于写得好坏，有个循序渐进的过程。经常写文章的学者，在构思阶段，习惯写个提纲，其实就是提要的前身。大多数人先把文章写好，再概括出摘要。当然，也有些情况下需要先写摘要，比如申请基金或提交意向书等。
摘要（Abstract）
摘要(Abstract) 也成为内容提要，通常在学士论文中都必须附有摘要，其位置应放在论文的正文之前，对整个论文内容的概述。无论对专业读者还是对非专业读者而言，摘要都是一个非常重要的文件。
摘要如果和论文一起发表，则被称为一次性出版物摘要，主要用于帮助读者评价文章内容及其潜在作用，使读者不必阅读全文就可以了解论文的内容。除此之外，摘要也可以被单独收入文摘机构出版的摘要期刊如：生物学文摘（Biological Abstract）、化学文摘（Chemical Abstract）等、称为二次性出版物摘要。此类脱离论文独立成篇的摘要主要用于方便读者检索文献、收集信息，帮助研究者寻找新的研究领域。
一． 摘要的定义
摘要的英文术语：有两个词汇，一个是 abstract, 一个是 summary. 根据美国国家标准学会（American National Standard Institute）于1971年通过并颁布的《美国国家文摘写作标准》（American National Standard for Writing Abstracts）规定，Abstract 不应与 summary 混同。
Abstract 对一篇论文的主要内容以精炼的文字进行高度概括，使读者不必阅读全文即可了解论文内容，或者让读者对即将阅读的文章有思想准备，或者让读者判断是否有通读全文的必要。文中只对论文信息进行浓缩，而不加主观评论或解释，可以脱离原文而独立成篇。字数通常在100~150个词左右，更确切地说，约为原文长度的1% ~ 5%（有的杂志规定摘要平均为全文的3% ~ 5%）。现在越来越多的用法是 abstract. 尤其是放在索引资料中一律要用 abstract 这个术语，在论文的题目下也通常要用这个词。
Summary (概要) 与 abstract 无明显差别。严格地说，summary 一般附在论文的后面，对论文的主要结论和成果进行再叙述。其前提是读者已经通读过全文，通过 summary 来巩固论文的主要论点和成果。在某些论文中，用 summary 取代正文中的 conclusion 部分。 Summary 是论文的“缩影”，可以概括论文的全部内容，只是在删繁就简上下功夫，字数长短不一，少则两三句话，多则500个单词甚至更长。美国的一些高等学校规定，硕士论文提要（summary）以250词左右为宜，而博士论文题要以350词左右为宜。国际会议论文的提要一般规定为300 ~ 500 词或 1000 个印刷符号。
至于究竟要采用什么形式，要根据征稿而定。一般说来，国际学术会议论文及要求按 Summary 方式来写摘要，而正式出版发行的刊物要修不尽一致。对于个别论文还见有前面为 Abstract, 结尾又有一个Summary , 这多半是由于文章过长，内容有多，后面的 Summary 相当于该文的缩写。 二． 摘要的种类
摘要分为两类，一类是说明性摘要（Descriptive/ Indicative Abstract），一类是资料性（Informative Abstract）摘要。
1. 说明性摘要 （Descriptive / Indicative Abstract）
如同迈克尔.艾利 （Michael Alley）所说，“一篇说明性摘要是段落形式的
目录，使读者手中的一份简要地图。”从这句话中可以清楚地了解说明性摘要的作用。说明性摘要指向读者指出论文的主要议题是什么，不涉及具体的研究方法和结果，但无法给读者提供更多的详细信息。它一般是用于综述性文章，也用于讨论、评论性文章，尤以介绍某学科近期发展动态的论文居多，常出现“… is studied”、 “…is discussed” 字样。时态多用现在时或现在完成时。其篇幅也较短，大多在100 ~ 150 字之间。以下是一篇说明性摘要的样例。
Ten widespread diseases that are hazards in isolated construction camps can be prevented by removing or destroying the breeding places of flies, mosquitoes and rats, and by killing their adult forms.
由于说明性摘要仅限于陈述论文的主要论题且篇幅较小，主要用于评述性的论文。
2. 资料性摘要 （Informative Abstract）
资料性摘要的优点是比说明性摘要能提供多的多的信息，它应该尽量完整和准确地体现原文的具体内容，特别强调指出研究的方法和结果、结论等。其篇幅较长，大多在150 ~250 字之间。根据原文长度，也有多达500字的。通常，这类的摘要反映了论文的基本面貌，能够代替阅读论文全文。
Ten widespread diseases that are hazards in isolated construction camps can be prevented by removing or destroying the breeding places of flies, mosquitoes and rats, and by killing their adult forms. The breeding of flies is controlled by proper disposal of decaying organic matter, and of mosquitoes by destroying or draining pools, or spraying them with oil. For rats, only the indirect methods of rat-resistant houses and protected food supplies are valuable. Control of adult forms of both insects and rodens requires use of poisons. Screens are used for insects. Minnows can be planted to eat mosquito larvae. 三． 如何写摘要 1. 摘要的位置
摘要的位置是确定的，一般在作者工作单位的下方。如：
Cultural Differences Between China and U.S.A (标题)
Xu Ying （署名）
Hunan University (Changsha, Hunan, 410082) (工作单位)
Abstract: (摘要) Key words: (关键词) 2. 写作要点
（1） 长度：有专家认为150 ~ 200 个词之间；文章长度的五分之一。
有些刊物会规定摘要的篇幅不能超过一定的字数，如：在80 ~ 100 之间，在投稿前应查询。
若刊物没有规定长度时，可以参阅已发表的文章长度。
参加国际会议的论文摘要有字数限制，一般要求200 ~ 500 个词之间，约1000个印刷符号。 （美国化学文献、医学文献的论文摘要规定在200个词以内） （2） 不要重复论文中的句子。 （3） 避免列举大堆数据
（4） 一般只是一个段落，不要将其分为数段。 （5） 不要使用祈使句、感叹句、公式、表格等。 （6） 完成论文后在写摘要。 （7） 一般使用第三人称或被动语态。 （8） 语言需简明扼要。 下面请看一段论文摘要：
This paper deals with the English syllabus for graduate students in China. The paper first reviews the history of the graduate English teaching, then discusses the shortcomings in the syllabus and finally proposes some suggestions for its revision. Key words: syllabus, graduate English teaching 阅读下面文章，然后写出一段80个词左右的摘要。
These days, there is a common belief among parents that schools are no longer taking any notice of students’ spelling. But, no school I have taught in has ever ignored spelling or considered it unimportant as a basic skill. There are, however, vastly different ideas about how to teach it, or how much importance it must be given over general language development and writing ability. The problem is, how to encourage a child to express himself freely and confidently in writing without holding
him back with the complexities of spelling.
If spelling becomes the only focal point of his teacher’s interest, clearly a bright child will be likely to “play safe”. He will tend to write only words within his spelling range, choose to avoid adventurous language. That’s why teachers often encourage the early use of dictionaries and pay attention to content rather than technical ability. I was once shocked to read on the bottom of a sensitive piece of writing about a personal experience. “This work is terrible! There are too many spelling errors and your writing is hard to read.” It may have been a sharp criticism of the pupil’s technical abilities in writing, but it was a sad remark from the teacher who had omitted to read the essay, which contained some beautiful expressions of the child’s deep feelings. The teacher was not wrong to draw attention to the errors, but if his attention had centered on the child’s ideas, an expression of his disappointment with the presentation would have given the pupil more motivation to seek improvement. 三．摘要的内容
摘要的写作必须准确、明晰、简洁，概述与细节之间需要相互平衡、相互补充。内容取舍的标准首先是对论文本身重点的理解，其次应该考虑到读者阅读的方式。资料性摘要的内容通常包括：
1. 背景知识或文献回顾 （Background Information / Literature Review） 2. 研究的主要目的和范围 （Principal Purpose） 3. 研究方法 （Methodology） 4. 研究的主要结果 （Results）
5. 结论和建议 （Conclusions and Recommendation） 例1：
This article discusses some possible roles for self-access pathways, particularly in cultures which have no tradition of self-study. It suggests how pathways might influence the design and running of self-access centres, and gives an illustration of how pathways were designed and employed in a centre in China. Feedback is based on a mini-survey distributed to thirty users.
(ELT Journal Vol.51/1 January 1997 Oxford Univ. Press, 1997)
例2：
The science taught in the classroom should be resonable up-to-date. What is taught should place emphasis first on the principles and major concepts of science rather than on the applications of scientific knowledge. The instructional techniques comprise laboratory work which is introduced in such a manner as to emphasize science as a process ----- to reveal through practice that science involves inquiry, discovery, and experimentation. The paper suggests that college science programs should be revised with view to preparing teachers to handle science in secondary and elementary schools. 四． This The 常用表达方式描述目的、介绍相关知识 Paper Thesis Article Study Survey Project Research Investigation Present study work Advances the view that … Advocates … Analyzes … Argues that … Contains deal with … Discusses … Develops … Explains the reason why … Expresses … Focuses (attention) on the fact that … Holds that … Includes … Investigates the features of … Makes a comparative study upon the … Offers … Presents … Proposes that … Reviews … States … Supports … The chief Major Main Primary principal Aim Goal Objective Object Proposal purpose Of Paper is To investigate … Discuss… Evaluate … Examine … Determine … Measure … Reveal the cause of … This Study Of the Project Research Survey work
The research is designed Study Project Investigation The experiments on … were made The author attemps Intends The author’s endeavor is to Determine … Measure the amount of … Evaluate… Calculate… Obtain the result of … Obtain some knowledge of … Explain the reason why … Outline the framework of … 英文摘要如何写
一、绪论
文章摘要是对所写文章主要内容的精炼概括。美国人称摘要为“Abstract”,而英国人则喜欢称其为“Summary”。
通常国际刊物要求所要刊登的文章字数，包括摘要部分不超过1万字。而对文章摘要部分的字数要求则更少。因此，写摘要时，应用最为简练的语言来表达论文之精华。论文摘要的重点应放在所研究的成果和结论上。
国际会议要求的论文摘要的字数不等，一般为200字-500字。而国际刊物要求所刊登的论文摘要的字数通常是100字-200字。摘要的位置一般放在一篇文章的最前面，内容上涵盖全文，并直接点明全旨。语言上要求尽量简炼。摘要通常多采用第三人称撰写。
科学书籍、论文和学术报告一般都附有内容摘要，这样可以节省读者的时间，使他们不必读完整个文章就能够了解它的主要内容。书籍摘要，一般放在封二或封三；论文和学术报告的摘要，一般放在正文前面。摘要应做到简明扼要，切题，能独立成文，使读者能准确地了解书籍的要义。写摘要时，最好用第三人称的完整的陈述句，文长一般不超过200个词。 二、要的类型与基本内容
英文摘要内容包含题名、摘要及关键词。gb 7713—87规定，为了国际交流，科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文应附有外文(多用英文）摘要。原则上讲，以上中文摘要编写的注意事项都适用于英文摘要，但英语有其自己的表达方式、语言习惯，在撰写英文摘要时应特别注意。
摘要分陈述性的（Descriptive）和资料性的（Informational）两类。陈述性摘要只说明论文、书籍或文章的主题，多半不介绍内容。资料性的摘要除了介绍主题外，还应介绍文章的要点和各个要点的主要内容。 它可以包括三个组成部分
①点明主题，解析文章或书籍的目的或意图； ②介绍主要内容，使读者迅速了解文章或书籍的概貌； ③提出结论或建议，以供读者参考。 三、英文题名
1） 题名的结构。英文题名以短语为主要形式，尤以名词短语(noun phrase）最常见，即题名基本上由1个或几个名词加上其前置和(或）后置定语构成。例
如： the frequent bryophytes in the mountain helanshan(贺兰山习见苔藓植物）；thermodynamic characteristics of water absorption of heattreated wood(热处理木材的水分吸着热力学特性）。短语型题名要确定好中心词，再进行前后修饰。各个词的顺序很重要，词序不当，会导致表达不准。题名一般不应是陈述句，因为题名主要起标示作用，而陈述句容易使题名具有判断式的语义；况且陈述句不够精练和醒目，重点也不易突出。少数情况(评述性、综述性和驳斥性）下可以用疑问句做题名，因为疑问句可有探讨性语气，易引起读者兴趣。例如：can agricultural mechanization be realized without petroleum?(农业机械化能离开石油吗?）。 2） 题名的字数。题名不应过长。国外科技期刊一般对题名字数有所限制。例如，美国医学会规定题名不超过2行，每行不超过42个印刷符号和空格；美国国立癌症研究所杂志j nat cancer inst要求题名不超过14个词；英国数学会要求题名不超过12个词。这些规定可供我们参考。总的原则是，题名应确切、简练、醒目，在能准确反映论文特定内容的前提下，题名词数越少越好。 3） 中英文题名的一致性。同一篇论文，其英文题名与中文题名内容上应一致，但不等于说词语要一一对应。在许多情况下，个别非实质性的词可以省略或变动。例如：工业湿蒸汽的直接热量计算，the direct measurement of heat transmitted wet steam。英文题名的直译中译文是“由湿蒸汽所传热量的直接计量”，与中文题名相比较，二者用词虽有差别，但内容上是一致的。
4） 题名中的冠词。在早年，科技论文题名中的冠词用得较多，近些年有简化的趋势，凡可用可不用的冠词均可不用。例如：the effect of groundwater quality on the wheat yield and quality．其中两处的冠词the 均可不用。 5） 题名中的大小写。题名字母的大小写有以下3种格式。 全部字母大写。例如：optimal disposition of roller chain drive
每个词的首字母大写，但3个或4个字母以下的冠词、连词、介词全部小写。例如：the deformation and strength of concrete dams with defects
题名第1个词的首字母大写，其余字母均小写。例如：Topographic inversion of interval Velocities．
目前b.格式用得最多，而c.格式的使用有增多的趋势。
6） 题名中的缩略词语。已得到整个科技界或本行业科技人员公认的缩略词
语，才可用于题名中，否则不要轻易使用。 四、作者与作者单位的英译
1） 作者。中国人名按汉语拼音拼写；其他非英语国家人名按作者自己提供的罗马字母拼法拼写。
2） 单位。单位名称要写全(由小到大），并附地址和邮政编码，确保联系方便。前段时间一些单位机构英译纷纷采取缩写，外人不知所云，结果造成混乱fao,who,mit尽人皆知，而bfu是beijing forestry university,恐怕只有“圈内”人知。另外，单位英译一定要采用本单位统一的译法(即本单位标准译法），切不可另起炉灶。
五、英文摘要
1） 英文摘要的时态。英文摘要时态的运用也以简练为佳，常用一般现在时、一般过去时，少用现在完成时、过去完成时，进行时态和其他复合时态基本不用。
一般现在时。用于说明研究目的、叙述研究内容、描述结果、得出结论、提出建议或讨论等。分别举例如下：this study(investigation） is (conducted, undertaken） to…the anatomy of secondary xylem(次生木质部） in stem of davidia involucrata (珙桐） and camptotheca acuminata (喜树） is compared. the result shows(reveals）…，it is found that…the conclusions are…the author suggests…．涉及到公认事实、自然规律、永恒真理等，当然也要用一般现在时。
一般过去时。用于叙述过去某一时刻(时段）的发现、某一研究过程(实验、观察、调查、医疗等过程）。例如：the heat pulse technique was applied to study the stemstaflow (树干液流） of two main deciduous broadleaved tree species in july and august,1996.需要指出的是，用一般过去时描述的发现、现象，往往是尚不能确认为自然规律、永恒真理的，而只是当时如何如何；所描述的研究过程也明显带有过去时间的痕迹。
现在完成时和过去完成时。完成时少用，但不是不用。现在完成时把过去发生的或过去已完成的事情与现在联系起来，而过去完成时可用来表示过去某一时间以前已经完成的事情，或在一个过去事情完成之前就已完成的另一过去行为。
例如：concrete has been studied for many years. man has not yet learned to store the solar energy.
2） 英文摘要的语态。采用何种语态，既要考虑摘要的特点，又要满足表达的需要。一篇摘要很短，尽量不要随便混用，更不要在一个句子里混用。
被动语态。以前强调多用被动语态，理由是科技论文主要是说明事实经过，至于那件事是谁做的，无须一一证明。事实上，在指示性摘要中，为强调动作承受者，还是采用被动语态为好。即使在报道性摘要中，有些情况下被动者无关紧要，也必须用强调的事物做主语。例如：in this case, a greater accuracy in measuring distance might be obtained.
主动语态。现在主张摘要中谓语动词尽量采用主动语态的越来越多，因其有助于文字清晰、简洁及表达有力。the author systematically introduces the history and development of the tissue culture of poplar 比 the history and development of the tissue culture of poplar are introduced systematically语感要强。必要时，the author systematically都可以去掉，而直接以introduces开头。
3） 英文摘要的人称。原来摘要的首句多用第三人称this paper…等开头，现在倾向于采用更简洁的被动语态或原形动词开头。例如：to describe…， to study…， to investigate…， to assess…，to determine…，the torrent classification model and the hazard zone mapping model are developed based on the geography information system.行文时最好不用第一人称，以方便文摘刊物的编辑刊用。
但由于主动语态的表达更为准确，且更易阅读，因而目前大多数期刊都提倡使用主动态。国际知名科技期刊“Nature”, “Cell”等尤其如此，其中第一人称和主动语态的使用十分普遍。
4） 注意事项。应避免一些常见的错误。
冠词。主要是定冠词the易被漏用。the用于表示整个群体、分类、时间、地名以外的独一无二的事物、形容词最高级等较易掌握，用于特指时常被漏用。这里有个原则，即当我们用the时，听者或读者已经确知我们所指的是什么。例如：the author designed a new machine.the machine is operated with solar energy. 由于现在缩略语越来越多，要注意区分a和an，如an x ray.
数词。避免用阿拉伯数字作首词，如：three hundred dendrolimus tabulaeformis
larvae are collected…中的 three hundred 不要写成300.
单复数。一些名词单复数形式不易辨认，从而造成谓语形式出错。 尽量使用短句。因为，长句容易造成语义不清；但要避免单调和重复。科技期刊涉及专业多，英文更是不易掌握，各行各业甚至表达方式、遣词造句都有区别。如果有机会，要多与英语国家同行接触，多请他们改一些国人所撰写的摘要或论文，积累经验，摸索规律。如果缺少这样的机会，多看英文文献，也会有助于我们英文写作及水平的提高。 英文文摘写作及参考文献引用技巧 目的
主要说明作者写作此文的目的或本文主要解决的问题。一篇好的英文摘要，一开头就应该把作者写作本文的目的或要解决的主要问题交待清楚，且要极其简练。应避免在摘要的第一句话重复使用题目或题目的一部分。 过程与方法
在英文摘要中，过程与方法的阐述起着承前启后的作用。它们主要说明作者主要工作过程及所用的方法，也应包括众多的边界条件、使用的主要设备和仪器。可以结合(指向）论文中的公式、实验框图等来进行阐述，这样既可以给读者一个清晰的思路，又给那些看不懂中文的英文读者一种可信的感觉。 结果和结论
代表着文章的主要成就和贡献。论文有没有价值，值不值得读者阅读，主要取决于你所获得的结果和所得出的结论。因此，在写作结果和结论部分时，一般都要尽量结合实验结果或仿真结果的图、表、曲线等加以说明，使结论部分言之有物，有根有据；如有可能，在结尾部分还可以将论文的结果和他人最新的研究结果进行比较，以突出论文的主要贡献和创新、独到之处。 常见的摘要句型有： 1）This paper deals with...
2）This article focuses on the topics of (that,having,etc）... 3）This eassy presents knowledge that... 4）This thesis discusses... 5）This thesis analyzes...
6）This paper provides an overview of... 7）This paper elaborates on ... 8）This article gives an overview of...
9）This article compares...and summarizes key findings. 10）This paper includes discussions concerning... 11）This paper presents uptodate information on... 12）This article covers the role of chemicals in... 13）This paper addresses important topics including... 14）This paper touches upon... 15）This paper strongly emphasizes... 16）This eassy represents the preceedings of ... 17）This article not only describes...but also suggests... 18）This paper considers...
19）This paper provides a method of ...
20）This paper introduces an applicable procedure to analyze... 21）This paper offers the latest information regarding... 22）This paper is devoted to examining the role of... 23）This article explores... 24）This paper expresses views on... 25）This paper reflects the state of the art in... 26）This paper explains the procedures for... 27）This paper develops the theory of ... 28）This article reviews the techniques used in...
29）This paper investigates the techniques and procedures to... 30）This article is about... 31）This eassy is related to ... 32）This paper concerns...
33）This paper gives an account of ... 34）This article tells of...
35）This paper tries to describe... 36）This paper provides an analysis of ... 37）This paper reports the latest information on ... 38）The author of this article reviews... 39）The writer of this paper discusses... 40）The writer of this eassy tries to explore... 41）The aim of this paper is to determine... 42）The purpose of this article is to review... 43）The objective of this paper is to explore... 破题用语，一般有：
①
The
author
of
this
article
reviews
(or:
discusses,describes,summarizes,examines）something……
②This article reviews (or:reports,tells of,is about,concerns）something……. ③This article has been prepared (or:designed,written）……. ④The purpose of this article is to determine something……. ⑤The problem of something is discussed ……. 结论和建议，一般有以下几种写法：
①The author suggests (recommends,concludes）that……. ②This article shows that……. ③It is suggested that…….
④The author's suggestion (or:conclusion ）is that ……
⑤The author finds it necessary to …….
摘要的分类
1． 陈述性摘要 (descriptive abstract)
只说明（陈述）论文的主题，不介绍论文的具体内容 Sample 1
Translation is not only a linguistic transference, but also an intercultural communication. For quite a long time, translation studies have been concentrated on the prescription of translation methods, with scant attention paid to the description of macro-cultural factors involved in the translating. In this paper, the writer contends
that the study of the macro-cultural factors will surely enlarge the scope and enrich the content of the translation studies. The paper is largely a rudimentary step, both in theory and in practice, to expose some of the factors influencing Mr. Fu’s translation of Gone with the Wind, with a historic and descriptive approach employed. Sample 2
To the general public, China English is a relatively new and serious concept, while in the fields of linguistics and translation a group of scholars have already make a study on it. Now most scholars hold that China English, based on the standard English, is a kind of variant of English to express things and concepts with Chinese characteristic. It is the product of the English language used in English-speaking countries combined with the unique Chineseness. Then, in the nation of China with a thousand-long history and civilization, how has China English come into being, grown and developed? This paper mainly focuses on the factors involved in the emergence and development of China English and it also explores people’s attitude toward China English, and analyzes the trend and role of China English in China and the world.
2． 资料性/信息性摘要 (informative abstract)
除了说明论文的主题外，还要介绍论文的主要观点、主要内容和研究成果 Sample 3
This paper, based on the theories and principles of psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology, deals with definitions and functions of emotional quotient, revealing some of the learners’ emotional characteristics, which affect the outcome of language learning. The author insists that language learning is a very sophisticated psychological process, and aspects of emotional quotient influence the learner’s cognitive process in which knowledge of the target language is internalized as language competence or skills. Results of experiments prove that positive and rich emotions are the motives needed for language learning. It is vital for language teachers to motivate their students to acquire the target language by developing their emotions and helping them internalize what they are learning. The author also mentions that language teachers should recognize the potential for creating a warm
and friendly environment for language learning so that language teaching and learning process will be more effective in improving the learner’s IQ, EQ, and language creative ability. Sample 4
In order to help students with their translation and assist teachers to find students’ main problems with translation, this paper studies an English to Chinese translation exercise of the second year English majors in a university. The author studies in by collecting and sorting out the typical errors made by students and analyzing the causes of the errors guided by error analysis theory. The research adopts the basic translation criteria of TEM-8 in sorting out students’ translation errors. According to the research, students’ errors fall into these categories: confusion in denotative and connotative meaning of a word, unnatural Chinese expressions, problems in dealing with proper nouns, misinterpretation of sentence structures of the source text, etc. Then the thesis analyzes the underlying causes: students’ lack of both translation theories and practice, and poor Chinese competence. It is hoped that more of this kind of research in both Chinese and English translation be done to guide translation teaching and practice. Sample 5
As a limitation of cultural transmission, culture absence prevents Chinese readers from fully appreciating the original text. This thesis takes the translating of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter as an example, aiming at discussing the culture translation approach in the practice of translation. As one of Hawthorne’s best-known novel, The Scarlet Letter has its distinctive culture feature and the problem of culture absence commonly exists in translating it into Chinese. This thesis compares three different Chinese translation versions of the novel based on the analysis of its culture connotation, and discusses the culture absence of historical background, religious belief, mythological elements, metaphorical expressions, color images, etc. In the thesis, examples are given to illustrate how culture absence presents in its Chinese translations. Also, different compensative means for the culture absence are compared in the thesis, such as transliteration and semantic translation,
literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization; the proper translation strategy should depend on different situations from the perspective of culture preservation.
英文摘要常用的句型表达主要有： This paper argues (demonstrates) … This paper explores (probes into) … This paper elaborates on (expounds) … This paper includes (covers, touches on) … This paper aims to (aims at) … This paper focuses on …
This paper makes a comparison of … This paper makes an attempt to touch on …
This paper offers a discussion of (an overview of, an analysis of ) … This paper develops the theory of … This paper is a criticism of the theory of … This paper, on the basis of …, reveals (illustrates) …
Based on …, this paper first categorizes … and then tentatively sets out … The purpose (objective) of this paper is to review …
The author (writer) of this paper holds (considers, deems, contends) … The author tries to give an account of … In this paper, the author proposes … It is pointed out …
In light of … theory, discussion is made about … in this paper.
This thesis aims at a better understanding of English to Chinese (E to C) translation of adverbial clauses in business contracts. The author first describes the general theories and criteria for translation, and those specifics for the translation of international business contracts, which are theoretical guidelines for the whole thesis. Then the writer discusses and analyzes the four categories of adverbial clauses in
international business contracts in translation. Finally, the author explores the major problems involved in translating adverbial clauses in business contracts from English to Chinese and proposes compensative strategies.
Summary Writing
Characteristics of a Good Summary: A good summary has the following characteristics:
►Proper Citation: The summary begins by citing the title, author, source, and, in the case of a magazine or journal article, the date of publication and the text.
►Thesis Statement: The overall thesis of the text selection is the author central theme. There are several aspects to an effective thesis statement:
- It comprises two parts: a) the topic or general subject matter of the text, and b) the major assertion, comment, or position on the topic. - This central theme is summarized clearly and accurately in a one sentence thesis statement. - The thesis statement does not contain specific details discussed in the text. - The thesis statement is stated at the beginning of the summary.
►Supporting Ideas: The author supports his/her thesis with supporting ideas. Use the following guidelines when summarising supporting ideas: - Cover all of the major supporting ideas. - Show the relationships among these ideas.
- Omit specifics, such as illustrations, descriptions, and detailed explanations. - Indicate the authorpurpose in writing: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. If the passage is a persuasive piece,bias or position on the issue. - Omit all personal opinions, ideas, and inferences. Let the reader know that you are reporting the author’s ideas. ►Grammar and the Mechanics of Writing: Grammar and related concerns ensure that, as a writer, you communicate clearly to your reader. The following are particularly important:
- Restate the ideas in your own words as much as possible. Avoid direct quotations. - Use transitional words for a smooth and logical flow of ideas. - Edit and re-write your work.
- Check your grammar, punctuation, and spelling
►Length: The length of a summary depends on how long the original document is. It
may vary between one third the original text and one tenth.
Steps in Writing a Summary: Initially, summary writing can seem like a
challenging task. It requires careful reading and reflective thinking about the article. Most of us, however, tend to skim read without focused reflection, but with time and 2 effort, the steps listed here can help you become an effective summary writer. ►Reread the Article.
- Divide the article into segments or sections of ideas. Each segment deals with one aspect of the central theme. A segment can comprise one or more paragraphs. Note: news magazine articles tend to begin with an anecdote.
Typically, a feature lead does not constitute a segment of thought. - Label each segment. Use a general phrase that captures the subject matter of the segment. Write the label in the margin next to segment. - Highlight or underline the main points and key phrases.
►Write One-Sentence summaries.
- Write a one-sentence summary for each segment of thought on a separate sheet of paper.
►Formulate the Thesis Statement.
- Formulate a central theme that weaves the one-sentence segment summaries together. This is your thesis statement. - In many articles, the author will state this directly. You may wish to take his direct statement of the thesis and restate it in your own words. ►Write Your First Draft.
- Begin with a proper citation of the title, author, source, and date of publication of the article summarised. - Combine the thesis statement and your one-sentence segment summaries into a
one-to-two-paragraph summary. - Eliminate all unnecessary words and repetitions. - Eliminate all personal ideas and inferences.
- Use transitions for a smooth and logical flow of ideas.
- Conclude with a ―summing up‖ sentence by stating what can be learned from reading the article.
►Edit Your Draft. Check your summary by asking the following questions: - Have I a
nswered the who, what, when, why, and how questions? - Is my grammar, punctuation, and spelling correct? - Have I left out my personal views and ideas?3
Does it flow when I read it aloud? - Have someone else read it. Does the summary give them the central ideas of the article?
►Write Your Final Draft.
A Sample Summary of “National Security Justifies Censorship” By Roger S. Thomas Introduction
The article \"National Security Justifies Censorship\" by Elmo R. Zumwalt and James G. Zumwalt, appears in Censorship, a book in the Opposing Viewpoints Series. The article asserts that information that is secret and vital to the security of the nation should not be released to the press. The arguments made by Zumwalt Senior and Junior are summarized below. Summary
Although many journalists contend that the First Amendment guarantees unrestricted printing freedom, the authors believe the press has gained more power than the framers of the Constitution foresaw and therefore neglected to install safe guards that would protect national security. According to the authors, the power of the media has gone far past what the constitutional framers expected; consequently, several acts since the writing of the Constitution have been implemented to deal with the lack of protection regarding national security. The authors continue to affirm that even though significant risk exists when confidential information is released to the press, this danger has remained unresolved by the courts.
The authors cite an example to prove this point. The CIA during the Reagan administration recognized Muhamar Quadaffi as a known terrorist and a potential threat to national security in a classified document. The Washington Post somehow had the document disclosed to them, and they soon published the information. Several months after the operation had been abandoned, the CIA found Quadaffi responsible for the bombing of a West Berlin discotheque. Military action had to be taken because of the earlier release of the classified document. The operation incurred military casualties.
The authors then offer a two-part solution: (1) make the publication of classified information a punishable offense, and (2) incorporate a \"code of ethics\" into media guidelines that safeguards national security. The paper ends by discussing how ethics are the responsibility of good journalism. Conclusion
Elmo R. Zumwalt and James G. Zumwalt assert that the media are overpowered and the national security is underprotected. They believe that the government and the media must take steps to assure a disaster does not occur. The first sentence of a summary
You are expected to identify the title of the text and the author in the first sentence, as well as the authors thesis or controlling idea. A general format for the first sentence is as follows: In the article {“title of Article,”}, {Author’s name} + {primary verb} + {main idea}.
Example: In the article “How Children Fail,” John Holt argues that most children fail because they do not develop their full potential.
The most commonly used primary verbs include: 1. claim 2. recommend 3. argue 4. report 5. show 6. insist 7. explain 8. describe 9. suggest 10. believe Model Summaries of Articles Original passage
The following passage was written by Marc Lacey and published in New York Times on November 12, 2004.
Using a New Language in Africa to Save Dying Ones
Swahili speakers wishing to use a ―compyuta‖—as computer is rendered in Swahili—have been out of luck when it comes to communicating in their tongue. Computers, no matter how bulky their hard drives or sophisticated their software packages, have not yet mastered Swahili or hundreds of other indigenous African languages. But that may soon change. Across the continent, linguists are working with experts in information technology to make computers more accessible to Africans who happen not to know English, French, or the other major languages that have been programmed into the world’s desktops.
There is economic reason for the outreach. Microsoft, which is working to incorporate Swahili into Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office, and other popular programs, sees a market for its software among the roughly 100 million Swahili speakers in East Africa. The same goes for Google, which last month launched www.google.co.ke, offering a Kenyan version in Swahili of the popular search engine.
But the campaign to Africanize cyberspace is not all about the bottom line. There are hundreds of languages in Africa—some spoken only by a few dozen elders—and they are dying out at an alarming rate. The continent’s linguists see the computers as one important way of saving them. UNESCO estimates that 90 percent of the world’s 6,000 languages are not represented on the Internet and that one language disappears somewhere around the world every two weeks. (242 words) Summary
In the article ―Using a New Language in Africa to Save Dying Ones‖(New York Times, November 12, 2004), Marc Lacey reports that linguists and computer experts are working to develop computers that work in Swahili and other African languages, so that many Africans can use computers in their native languages. Economics is one reason for doing so. Computer companies such as Microsoft and Google see potentially huge market for their products in Africa. Another important reason is to save African languages that are in danger of dying out. (88 words)
Here is another model summary of a magazine article: How to Heal a Hypochondriac
By Michael D. Lemonick Tuesday, Sept. 30, 2003
It happens to every medical student sooner or later. You get a cough that persists for a while or feel a funny pain in the stomach or notice a tiny lump under the skin. Ordinarily, you would just ignore it — but now, armed with your rapidly growing store of medical knowledge, you can't help worrying. The cough could mean just a cold, but it could also be a sign of lung cancer. A twinge might be internal bleeding. The lump is probably a lymph node — but is it bigger than it should be? Could it be Hodgkin's diseas
e?
For doctors in training, nurses and medical journalists, hypochondria is an occupational hazard. The feeling usually passes after a while, leaving only a funny story to tell at a dinner party. But for the tens of thousands who suffer from true hypochondria, it's no joke. Hypochondriacs live in constant terror that they are dying of some awful disease, or even several awful diseases at once. Doctors can assure them that there's nothing wrong, but since the cough or the pain is real, the assurances fall on deaf ears. And because no physician or test can offer a 100% guarantee that one doesn't have cancer or multiple sclerosis or an ulcer, a hypochondriac always has fuel to feed his or her worst fears.
Hypochondriacs don't harm just themselves; they clog the whole health-care system. Although they account for only about 6% of the patients who visit doctors every year, they tend to burden their physicians with frequent visits that take up inordinate amounts of time. According to one estimate, hypochondria racks up some $20 billion in wasted medical resources in the U.S. alone. And the problem may be getting worse, thanks to the proliferation of medical information on the Internet. \"They go on the Web,\" says Dr. Arthur Barsky, a psychiatrist at Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, \"and learn about new diseases and new presentations of old diseases that they never even knew about before.\" Doctors have taken to calling this phenomenon cyberchondria.
Most physicians tend to think of hypochondriacs as nuisances — patients they are just as happy to lose. But a few clinicians, like Barsky and Columbia University neuropsychiatrist Dr. Brian Fallon, have begun to take the condition more seriously. \"It's not correct to say there's nothing wrong with a hypochondriac,\" Fallon asserts. \"There is something wrong, but it's a disorder of thought, not of the body.\" And, as he points out, disorders of thought are neither imaginary nor untreatable.
That's something Fallon realized a little more than a decade ago. He was studying obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) when he noticed it had a lot in common with hypochondria. \"Both disorders,\" he says, \"involve intrusive, worrisome thoughts, the need for reassurance and a low tolerance for uncertainty.\" Psychiatrists had lately come
to think that OCD could be treated with Prozac and similar drugs, and Fallon decided the medications might work for hypochondria as well. With only 57 subjects, the study was too small to be definitive, but it was certainly promising: about 75% of those who got the drug showed significant improvement.
But so did many in the placebo group, which led Fallon to take an even closer look. His conclusion: hypochondriacs may actually represent three different groups whose problems look superficially similar. Those in the first really do have a variant of OCD. Those in the second have a problem more like depression, often triggered by something that makes them feel guilty — an affair, perhaps — or by a loss, like the death of a close relative. And the third group consists of people who somatize — which means they focus an inordinate amount of attention on their bodies. A pain that most people wouldn't even notice feels like a punch in the nose to those in this group.
In all cases, though, the descent into hypochondria takes the form of a self-reinforcing spiral. You notice a symptom, decide it's unusual and begin exploring for more. Since we all have minor twinges from time to time, when you go looking for more, you find them. \"You build a case in your own mind that something's wrong,\" says Barsky. Even if a doctor assures you it isn't true, you have the symptoms to prove to yourself that the doctor is mistaken.
The key to treatment is disrupting the cycle. That can be tough, however, since doctors rarely tell hypochondriacs the truth about their disorder. When Fallon tried to recruit study subjects through their doctors, he got nowhere; physicians evidently didn't want to embarrass or anger their patients by suggesting they might be hypochondriacs. To avoid stigmatizing their patients, Fallon and Barsky avoid the H word altogether. Fallon calls it \"heightened illness concern,\" and Barsky doesn't use any label at all. \"The first thing I do,\" says Barsky, \"is acknowledge the patient's symptoms and say we have no good explanation for them.\" Then he suggests that the patient do some psychological work, which he tells them is often helpful in such situations.
His preferred technique is cognitive behavioral therapy, in which patients are trained to force their attention away from the symptoms. \"Just as focusing on a pain makes it seem more significant, ignoring it can make it seem much less,\" says Barsky. Patients a
re also instructed to counter panicky thoughts with self-reassurance, reminding themselves, for example, that stomach pain almost never means stomach cancer. Both cognitive therapy and medication seem to work, and at this point it's hard to say whether one is better than the other. \"Nobody's done a comparative trial,\" says Fallon, \"although Barsky and I are working on that.\"
Both men agree that their primary-care colleagues aren't very well attuned to the problem. \"Things are improving,\" says Barsky, \"but there's not a heck of a lot of education about hypochondria in medical school. We teach doctors that their job is to find disease and weed out those who are physically well. They have no time for hypochondriacs.\" It needn't take as much time as they think, though. \"It's not hard to identify a hypochondriac,\" says Fallon, \"if you have the right antenna out.\" And once a hypochondriac is identified and properly treated, no one is happier than his or her doctor. 1044 words Summary of “How to Heal a Hypochondriac”
How to Heal a Hypochondriac‖ (Time, September 30, 2003), Michael Lemonick reports on research into ways of dealing with hypochondria, a thinking disorder that makes healthy people believe that they are suffering from one or more serious diseases. Not only do hypochondriacs genuinely suffer from their disorder, but they create a significant burden on the health-care system. Research suggests that hypochondriacs fall into three categories: those who have a variant of obsessive-compulsive disorder, those whose hypochondria was triggered by a stressful life event, and those who are hypersensitive to any physical symptoms. Cognitive therapy, in which patents are trained to direct their attention away from their symptoms, and antidepressant medication both seem helpful in treating hypochondria. The most difficult part of treatment is suggesting that a patient suffers from hypochondria without angering or embarrassing him or her. 138 words Article
Children Must be Taught to Tell Right from Wrong William Kilpatrick
Many of today’s young people have a difficult time seeing any moral dimension (道德
层
面) to their actions. There are a number of reasons why that’s true, but none more prominent than a failed system of education that eschews (
回
避) teaching children the traditional moral values that bind Americans together as a society and a culture. That failed approach, called “decision-making,” was introduced in schools 25 years ago. It tells children to decide for themselves what is right and what is wrong. It replaced “character education. (
品
格
教
育)” Character education didn’t ask children to reinvent the moral wheel (浪费时间重
新
发
明
早
已
存
在
的
道
德
标
准); instead, it encouraged them to practice habits of courage, justice and self-control. In the 1940s, when a character education approach prevailed, teachers worried about students chewing gum; today they worry about robbery and rape. Decision-making curriculums pose thorny (
棘
手
的) ethical dilemmas to students, leaving them with the impression that all morality is problematic and that all questions of right and wrong are in dispute. Youngsters are forced to question values and virtues they’ve never acquired in the first place or upon which they have only a tenuous (
薄
弱
的) hold. The assumption behind this method is that students will arrive at good moral conclusions if only they are given the chance. But the actual result is moral confusion.
For example, a recent national study of 1,700 sixth- to ninth-graders revealed that a majority of boys considered rape to be acceptable under certain conditions. Astoundingly, many of the girls agreed.
This kind of moral illiteracy is further encouraged by values-education (价值观教育
) programs that are little more than courses in self-esteem (
自
尊). These programs are based on the questionable assumption that a child who feels good about himself or herself won’t want to do anything wrong. But it is just as reasonable to make an opposite assumption: namely, that a child who has uncritical self-regard will conclude that he or she can’t do anything bad.
Such naive self-acceptance results in large part from the non-directive (无指导性
的的想
), non-judgmental (无是非观思渗
), as-long-as-you-feel-comfortable-with-your-choices mentality (
) that has pervaded (
透) public education for the last two and one-half decades. Many of today’s drug education, sex education and values-education courses are based on the same 1960s philosophy that helped fuel the explosion in teen drug use and sexual activity in the first place.
Meanwhile, while educators are still fiddling with (
胡
乱
摆
弄) outdated “feel-good” approaches, New York, Washington, and Los Angeles are burning. Youngsters are leaving school believing that matters of right and wrong are always merely subjective. If you pass a stranger on the street and decide to murder him because you need money—if it feels right—you go with that feeling. Clearly, murder is not taught in our schools, but such a conclusion—just about any conclusion—can be reached and justified using the decision-making method. It is time to consign (
寄
出
) the fads (
风
尚) of “decision-making” and “non-judgmentalism” to the ash heap of failed policies, and return to a proved method. Character education provides a much more realistic approach to moral formation. It is built on an understanding that we learn morality not by debating it but by practicing it.
Summary of \" Time and Tide\"
The \"Time and Tide\" is a article that talks about the tides and how them effected people throughout the history. In addition, it talks about how to dispose those problems in a dozen different ways and by use of a dozen different analogies.
First of all, the article tells us what are the tides. Basically, the Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels. It increased and decreased with time. Each month there were two periods of particularly large range between high and low tides, which were called the \"spring tides\" and \"neap tides\". Moreover, the article talks about what causes the tides. In my understanding, the tides are caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth.the moon's gravit
ational force pulls on water in the oceans so that there are \"bulges\" in the ocean on both sides of the planet. The moon pulls water toward it, and this causes the bulge toward the moon. The bulge on the side of the Earth opposite the moon is caused by the moon\"pulling the Earth away\" from the water on that side. In the same way, for the Sun. It too, exerts a gravitational influence on the Earth.
Second of all, the article talks about how the Moon compare to other satellites, such as the Neptune-on-Triton. The article shows that how to dispose the problems by using the analogy. For instance, if the effect of Moon-on-Earth is considered to be 1.00, then the effect of Earth-on-Moon is 32.5. Then, as a matter of fact, there are six other satellites in the solar system that are Moon-sized or a little larger, and each of them is attached to a planet considerably more massive than the Earth. They are therefore much more affected tidally.
Finally, the article compare the Moon's effect on Earth to the Sun's effect on other planets, likewise, the Venus and Mercury, however, which are closer to the Sun than is the Earth, According to his calculations, the Sun's effects are more than the Moon's effect on Earth, whichi is not sufficient to stop Earth's rotation altogether; but they are less than the Earth's effect on the Moon, which was enough to stop the Moon. In conclusion, this article starts with the tides on the earth and tells us what is caused by. Moreover, it explain how to compare the Moon's effect on the Earth to other planets' by useing the analogy. Summary of the Story of an Hour
In the story of The Story of an Hour, the author Kate Chopin narrated what happened to Mrs. Mallard, who was afflicted with a heart trouble, in an hour. The story not only shows her pursuit of mental freedom but also emotional independence.
When she heard of her husband’s death in a railroad disaster, ―She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister's arms.‖ After the storm of grief, Mrs. Mallard went away to her room alone. In the room, she sank into the chair with her body inactive and shook with a sob. She could see many things such as trees, rain and sky. All of them seems have connections with her sad mood. Then she whispered of freedom. She knew that she loved her kind and tender husband, but she just couldn’t help whis
pering :―Free! Body and soul free!‖ What caused her confusing feelings? That was the restriction of social ethics. Mrs. Mallard desired for freedom, but traditional ethics warned her that she could not feel luck to get freedom that resulted from the death of her husband. Fancying this freedom, Mrs. Mallard went out from the room with a ―feverish triumph‖.
The end of the story was satiric, Mrs. Mallard saw her husband Brently Mallard entering the house, but Richards was too late. When the doctor came she had died of heart disease——of joy that kills. The doctors, Mrs. Mallard’s husband and her other relatives believed that it was her excitement of Mr. Mallard’ coming home that caused Mrs. Mallard’s death. But in fact, it was Mrs. Mallard’s despair of freedom after her husband’s coming back that resulted in her death.
Written Article Summary for Arielle Aaronson
The article explores the function of actual literary texts in classroom-based foreign language teaching by conducting surveys on the previous key research studies and evidence from practitioners. The resurgence in the application of literature in language teaching has been accompanied by an increasing number of research articles in this area. This paper starts with a consideration of empirical research into the contribution of literature to L2 learning. Then, it moves to a discussion of the views of learners and teachers, followed by a discussion of methodological issues. Furthermore, it looks to a consideration of changes in syllabuses and curricula, as revealed in practitioner papers. The article concludes with an overview and a discussion of future trends.
Based on the brief summary of the article, I think this article closely relates to the author’s topic on the application of actual literature in EFL/ESL teaching. Three reasons are stated as follows:
Firstly, the current article presents rich resource of the previous studies from both theoretical and practical perspectives. Especially, it includes the counter-arguments of both sides concerning using literature in the L2 classroom. In this case, it prepares the readers with more than one angle to approaching the issue.
Secondly, the references of the article range from early 90s to the latest. The longitudi
nal study provides an overview on the role of literature, which is convenient for the author to observe the big picture and trend in this area.
Thirdly, the critically self-evaluation of the article shows more room for further research in this field. The reflection of Paran on the previous studies is critical and clear. He has pointed out key issues and grey areas regarding the function of literary texts, in which case, it is easier for later scholars to conduct research.
However, this article is more of a library-based review; I would prefer more detailed articles on quantitative research studies if the purpose of the intent is numerical -oriented.
English 2950/711/714 Spring 2011 Paul Conner Assignment 2: E-mail Message
Write an E-mail message to your supervisor, whose office is in another city, informing her/him of some important financial news that you read in the New York Times. Assume that this news is relevant to your company’s business. (You don’t have to specifically explain why this message is relevant). Also assume that your supervisor strongly prefers short summaries of financial news rather than having to read the full text of an article. The NY Times article
reproduced below contains 700 words. Introduce your summary briefly with one sentence, and then include it as part of your e-mail message. Your summary should be no more than 250 words. For a brief review of how to write a summary, we will discuss pp. 634-36 in class. Please send this message to me as an e-mail, not an attachment. There will be no Blackboard drop box for this assignment! Purpose:
To give you practice in sending an e-mail message to a supervisor and in summarizing an article effectively. Audience:
Your supervisor/instructor. Grading Criteria:
Follow the ―Writer’s Checklist‖ for E-mails on page 385. s‖ for ―Following Netiquette‖ on pp. 380-81. described in the first paragraph above,
by including only the most essential information.
Write your message in Standard
Use the ―Guideline
Summarize the article effectively, as
English. This means to carefully revise,
edit, and proofread your message before sending it. eflective memo typed at the bottom of
it to the instructor before class begins on Tuesday, Feb. 15. There will be no Blackboard drop box for this assignment. Be sure and bring a hard copy of your draft (just print out your
message directly from UTAD) and reflective memo to class on 2/15 to exchange with your partner
Draft your peer review during the workshop, and then E-mail it to your partner with a copy to me by the end of the workshop session on the 15th.
From the New York Times, 1/27/11:
S. &P. Downgrades Japan as Debt Concerns Spread
Standard & Poor’s, the credit ratings agency, downgraded Japan’s long-term sovereign debt on Thursday, a sharp reminder of the heavy burden plaguing the world’s third-largest economy at levels that stand out even in an increasingly debt-ridden world. S.& P. lowered its sovereign credit rating for Japan to AA- from AA. That is three levels below the highest possible rating, and S.& P.’s first downgrade of Japanese government debt since 2002. With the lower grade, Japan’s debt rating is now on par with China’s, which last year overtook Japan as the world’s second-largest economy, after the United States.
S.& P.’s move came just weeks after both it and its rival ratings agency, Moody’s, cautioned that they might take a more negative stance on the United States. It highlighted just how deeply indebted many of the world’s developed economies remain — despite concerted efforts on the parts of governments to improve their balance sheets. But by size, Japan’s ballooning deficit is an anomaly. Japan’s liabilities will hit 204 percent of its gross domestic product this year, overshadowing even the 137 percent for beleaguered Greece, according to figures from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Moody’s affirmed its Aa2 rank for Japan, the third-highest gr
E-mail your message with the r
ade.
S.& P., in downgrading Japan, warned that the Japanese government had no ―coherent strategy‖ to address its ballooning deficit, and that its already high debt burden was likely to continue to rise further than it had anticipated before the financial crisis. A rapidly aging population is adding to the country’s woes, raising the likelihood of increasing social security and pension obligations in the future. S.& P. said it expected Japan’s debt to continue rising until the middle of this decade, and ―we do not forecast the government achieving a primary balance before 2020, unless a significant fiscal consolidation program is implemented beforehand.‖
Kaoru Yosano, Japan’s newly installed economy minister, said that the S.& P. move was ―regrettable‖ and that he believed the Japanese government’s efforts to reduce the debt burden had not been fully understood.
―I believe confidence in Japan will not be shaken,‖ he said late Thursday. The yen, which has been soaring — another of Japan’s burdens — fell against the dollar on the news, reaching 83.22 yen to the dollar. It recovered somewhat later in the day, to 83.00 yen.
Prime Minister Naoto Kan had little reassurance to offer. ―I just heard that news,‖ a flustered-looking Mr. Kan told reporters. ―I am a little ignorant on those kinds of matters,‖ he said. ―Let me look into it more.‖ The United States, France, Germany and Britain are among major economies that retain AAA ratings, although some investors suspect that they, too, may become more vulnerable if growth slows anew or if their public finances fail to improve.
This month, Moody’s and S.& P. both warned that the AAA rating for the United States could be reviewed in a couple of years if its debt kept growing. But a downgrade appears unlikely as long as the United States economy and the dollar retain their global dominance.
Meanwhile, the debt levels of several of Europe’s smaller economies on the periphery of the euro zone have raised worries about possible defaults and more pain for the banking system. Since the onset of the sovereign debt crisis in the euro zone early last year, the main ratings agencies have downgraded the sovereign credit of a number of cou
ntries, including Greece, Ireland, Spain, Portugal and Belgium. Speaking Thursday on the sidelines of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, John Lipsky, first deputy managing director of the International Monetary Fund, suggested the action highlighted debt problems in developed countries.
―All the advanced economies face long-term fiscal challenges,‖ Mr. Lipsky said. ―These problems have been brought into focus by the crisis. These issues need to be addressed.‖ Despite the staggering size of Japan’s debt-to-G.D.P. ratio, most of Japan’s debt is held domestically, unlike that of Greece or the United States. And Japan runs a current-account surplus in trade, putting it on a more stable financial footing. Japan’s borrowing costs remain among the lowest in the industrialized world. The yield on a benchmark 10-year Japanese government bond hovered around 1.25 percent late afternoon in Tokyo.
②This article shows that……. ③ It is suggested that…….
④The author's suggestion (or:conclusion )is that …… ⑤The author finds it necessary to …….
Useful Transitions and Transitional Phrases Introduction to a Topic
as for, concerning, with regard to, with respect to, in terms of To Summarize
in all, in a word, in brief, briefly, in other words, in short,
in summary, that is, finally, generally, in conclusion, on the whole, therefore, to sum up, to conclude, and so, this shows, thus we see
To Compare by comparison, here again, in the same way, in a similar manner, likewise, similarly, so too, as, also, equally, accordingly, moreover, as well, and
To Contrast conversely, however, instead (of), in spite of that, anyhow, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise,
rather than, still, yet, nevertheless, in contrast,
notwithstanding, in spite of this, although, but, despite, even though
To
Show accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, consequently, Cause and Effect
for this reason, hence, it follows that, so/so that, then, therefore, thus, thereupon To Explain
actually, admittedly, because, certainly, for example, in fact, indeed, really of course, since, that is, for instance,
namely, specifically, such as, to illustrate, in particular, in this manner, thus To
Show Conviction
after all, at least, at the same time, apparently, even so, evidently, certainly, conceivably, conclusively, doubtless,
no doubt, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, surely, undoubtedly To Show Various Conditions
in this event, in these circumstances, this (that) being so, provided that, in spite of, none/nevertheless, at the same time, even if, if, unless, otherwise, although, even though, though, despite To
Add Information add to this, again, also, besides, equally, further,
furthermore, in addition, moreover, once more, then too, too, yet again, yet another, and, as well, beyond that, even, next, similarly To
Show Chronological after that, afterwards, later, shortly, subsequently, concurrently, in the meantime, in the meanwhile, now,
Order simultaneously, when/while/was, first, second, etc., formerly, earlier, previousl
y, before that, then, already, at last, at length, by that time, finally, during, immediately, next, soon, still, in the interim, presently, at the same time, in the end, temporarily, thereafter To Show Concession
admittedly, after all, all the same, at any rate, granted,
however, in any case, in spite of, it is true that, nevertheless, obviously, of course, still, to be sure Location
above, below, beyond, farther, further, here, nearby, opposite, there, to t
总结阅读文章
Not blind, and are no more likely than dogs and cats to transmit rabies. Bats, in fact, are among the least understood and least appreciated of animals.
Bats are not rodents with wings, contrary to popular belief. Like all rodents, bats are mammals, but they have a skeleton similar to the human skeleton. The bones in bat wings are much like those in arms and the human hand, with a thumb and four fingers. In bats, the bones of the arms and the four fingers of the hands are very long. This bone structure helps support the web of skin that stretches from the body to the ends of the fingers to form wings.
Although bats cannot see colors, they have good vision in both dim and bright light. Since most bats stay in darkness during the day and do their feeding at night, they do not use their vision to maneuver in the dark but use a process called echolocation. This process enables bats to emit sounds from their mouths that bounce off objects and allow them to avoid the objects when flying. They use this system to locate flying insects to feed on as well. Typically, insect-eating bats emerge at dusk and fly to streams or ponds where they feed.
They catch the insects on their wingtip or tail membrane and fling them into their mouths while flying.
There are about 1,000 species of bat, ranging in size from the bumblebee bat, which is
about an inch long, to the flying fox, which is sixteen and has a wingspan of five feet. Each type of bat has a specialized diet. For seventy percent of bats, the diet is insects. Other types of bats feed on flowers, pollen, nectar, and fruit or on small animals such as birds, mice, lizards, and frogs.
One species of bat feeds on the blood of large mammals. This is the common vampire bat, which lives only in Latin America and is probably best known for feeding on the blood of cattle. Unfortunately, in an attempt to control vampire bat populations, farmers have unintentionally killed thousands of beneficial fruit-and insect-eating bats as well. Bats, in fact, perform a number of valuable functions. Their greatest economic value is in eliminating insect pests. Insect- eating bats can catch six hundred mosquitoes in an hour and eat half their body weight in insects every night. In many tropical rain forests, bats are the main means of spreading the seeds of tropical fruits. Nectar-feeding bats pollinate a number of tropical plants. If it were not for bats, we might not have peaches, bananas, mangoes, guavas, figs, or dates.
Today, the survival of many bat species is uncertain. Sixty percent of bats do not survive past infancy. Some are killed by predators such as owls, hawks, snakes and other meat-eating creatures, but most are victims of pesticides and other human intrusions. In Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, where there were once eight million bats, there are now a quarter million.
At Eagle Creek, Arizona, the bat population dropped from thirty million to thirty thousand in six years.
Bats often have been burdened with a bad reputation, perhaps because they are not the warm, cuddly sort of animal. we love to love. However, their unusual physical features should not lead us to overestimate their harm or to underestimate their value.
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