语言学

CHAPTER 1

1.the definition of linguistics : Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or as the scientific study of language.

2.2.the definition of language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(system: The elements of language are combined according to rules. Arbitrary任意的: There is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Vocal口头的: The primary medium for all languages is sound. human communication : Language is human-specific.)

3.3.design features of language 语言的7种特性: 1.Arbitrariness任意性 2.Duality 双重性(double articulation) 3.Productivity创造性 (Creativity)

4.4.Interchangeability 转换性(Reciprocity)

5.5. Displace替代性

6.6.Specialization

7.7.Cultural transmission 4.function of language : Phatic

function/communion(寒暄功能);Directive function(指令功能): Informative function(信息功能): Interrogative function(疑问功能): Evocative function(情感功能): Performative function(施为功能): Expressive function (表达功能) 5.some concepts

in linguistics: Descriptive(描写式) and prescriptive(规定 式)grammars : Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.Most modern linguistics is descriptive. It attempts to describe what people actually say. Traditional grammars is prescriptive for it tell people how to use a language. Synchronic and diachronic (historical) linguistics: When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics共时语言学. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics历史的. Langue and parole: Lange refers to the abstract抽象的 linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refer to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of

language, while parole is individualized

speech. Lange is the code, and parole is the message.--Langue is relatively stable and systematic, whereas parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors. Parole and langue together constitute language. Competence and performance：Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations. Performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge. --Similarity: They both divide language into knowledge and behavior. Difference: Chomsky’s （乔姆斯基美语言学家转换生成语法创始人）competence is a psychological construct and Saussure’s langue is a set of social convention惯例.

CHAPTER 2：

1．Phone, phoneme, allophone: A phone-- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phone is the realization of the phoneme. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t. A phoneme--- is a phonological unit; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by certain phones in certain phonetic context. it is a unit of distinctive value(A phoneme is capable of distinguish meaning.) Allophones ----the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.

2. The description of English consonants:辅音描述(1.voiced or voiceless (2,place of articulation发音部位---Bilabial(双唇音): [p] [b] [m] [w], Labiodental(唇齿音): [f] [v] ,Dental(齿音) [θ] [ð] ,alveolar(齿龈音): [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r], Palatal(腭音): [∫] [з] [t∫] [dз] [j] ,Velar(软腭音): [k] [g] [η],glottal(喉音[h] (3,manner of articulation发音方法---stop (塞音) [p] [b] [t] [d][k] [g] Fricative(擦音): [f] [v] [s] [z] [θ] [ð] [∫] [з] [h] , affricate(塞擦音): [t∫] [dз],liquid(流音): [l] [r] , nasal(鼻音): [m] [n] [η] glide(滑音): [w] [j]

3. Classification of monophthongs 单元音的描述：(1.the position of tongue Front vowels: [i:] [i] [e] [æ] Central vowels: [з:] [ə] [∧] Back vowels: [u:] [u] [כּ:] [Þ] [α:] lips are rounded or not--- Rounded vowels: [u:] [u] [כּ:] [Þ], Unrounded vowels: [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [з:] [ə] [∧] [α:] openness of mouth---Close vowels: [i:] [i] [u:] [u] Central vowels: Semi-close vowels: [e] [з:], Central vowels : Semi-open vowels: [ə] [כּ :] Open vowels: [æ] [Þ] [α:] [∧] tenseness of the vowel ---Long vowels: [i:] [u:] [α:] [з:] [כּ :],Short vowels: [i] [u] [ə] [Þ] [æ] [e] [∧]

4. Minimal pairs and sets：Minimal pair：Two different words that are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings. Minimal set ：A group of words which meet all the above 3 conditions.

5．The syllable structure：A syllable must have a nucleus (核心) or peak (峰) which is often a vowel, sometimes a consonant plays the part of a nucleus. Eg: table consists of a syllable [tei] and a syllable [bl], in the first syllable, the nucleus中心 is [ei] while in the second one it is the consonant [1] to function as the nucleus (apple, bottle, mammal, etc). Differences in syllable structure exist in different cultures. Eg: sixths→CVCCCC [siksθs], spring →CCCVC [spriη], eye →V [ai], CV-do, VC-eat , CVC-cat,CCVC-green,VCC-eggs,CCCVC-strike, CVCC-nest, CVCCC-next. 6.发音规则？

CHAPTER 3：

1.A morpheme词素: is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more

morphemes.1-morpheme(boy,desire)2-morpheme(boy+ish,desir(e)+ble )3-morpheme( boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity)

2.P55图（见上） 3.compounding(合成构词法)： N:n+n--rainbow,v+n—pickpocket,n+v—haircut,a+n—highchair V:n+v—to manhandle,v+v—to sleep-walk,a+v—to highlight A:n+a—

CHAPTER 4：

1. Sentence types : Type: S V O C A (S=Subject, V=Verb, O=Object, C=Complement, A=Advervial) eg:SVOC—Lily consider the book expensive. SVOA--You must put the toy downstairs

2. J.R.Firth. M.A.K.Halliday: is the main representative person of this theory. Systemic functional grammar includes two parts: the systemic grammar and the functional grammar. The two parts related together to be a whole. The three metafunctions composed of

ideational (which is subdivided into experiential and logical), interpersonal

and

textual functions. And they are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity(及物性), mood(语气) and theme (主位)& rheme(述位).

3句法画图： Phrase structure component: S ：NP + VP --VP ：V+ NP-- NP ：Det +N-- Det ：the ,a, etc. --N ：man, ball, etc V--hit, took, etc CHAPTER 5：Semantics语义学----the study of language meaning 1 .Some views concerning the study of meaning：Naming theory or Referential theory (Plato)指称论：The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names , is often called referential指示的 theory or naming theory. The conceptualist view观念论：The conceptualist概念论者 view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what

it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); Behaviorism 行为论：Behaviorists represented by Bloomfield布鲁姆菲尔德美语言学家 argued that meaning exists in the relation between speech and the practical events that precede and follow it .（刺激—反应）The contextualism 语境

论：Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context. Two types of contexts are recognized: For example, “black” in

black hair &

black coffee, or

black sheep differs in meaning. Meaning as truth conditions真值论：The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those ―circumstances‖ are called truth conditions of the sentence.

2.Major sense relations of words ：Homophony 同音异义（rain-reign, night/knight）Homography 同形异义（tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), ）Homonymy同名race(速度／种族), flower / flour）Polysemy 多义关系e.g. “table” may mean Synonymy 同义关系（autumn – fall，kid, child, offspring）Antonymy 反义关（alive-dead, male-female，give-receive）Hyponymy 上下义关系Meronymy 整体部分关系（A car includes wheel , engine, door, window, etc.） 3. Sense relations between sentences (1) entailment 蕴涵(P: Marry has been to Beijing. ENTAILS Q: Marry has been to China.

If P is true, Q is true; if P is

false, Q may be true or false. If Q is false, P is false; if Q is true, P may be true or false.)(2) presupposition 预设(P: His bike needs repairing.Q: He has a bike. If P is

true, Q is true; If P is false, Q is still true; If Q is true, P can either be true or false; if Q is false, p is f.)(3) synonymy 同义(P: The boy killed the cat. Q: The cat was killed by the boy. If P is true, Q is true; if P is false, Q is false; If Q is true, P is true; if Q is false, P is false; ) (4) inconsistency不一致(P: He is single.Q: He has a wife. If P is true, Q is false; if P is false, Q is true.)(5) contradiction 自相矛盾(My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor)(6) P is semantically anomalous 语义异常(The man is pregnant) (7) implicature 含意(A: Don’t you think it’s quite stuffy here?B: Would you please open the windows to air the room?)

CHAPTER 6：

1. Pragmatics 语用学：the study of meaning language in use or language communication; or the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatics vs. semantics : Semantics---- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. ―Today is Sunday‖, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation.

2. 2.Austin’s new model of speech acts : The locutionary act (言内行为):an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); The illocutionary act (言外行为):the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning (the intention of the speaker while

speaking). The perlocutionary act (言后行为):an act performed as a result of the utterance on the hearer. For example, ―It is cold in here.‖ Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold in here; Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window; Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request. 3.classification of speech acts : Assertives/representatives(陈述) (saying what the speaker believes to be true, it can be statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions, e.g. The earth is flat. )Directives(指令)( Trying to get the hearer to something and they are commands, orders, requests, suggestions, begging and pleading , e.g. I order you to leave right now. ) Commissives(承诺) （Committing承诺 the speaker himself to some future course of action and they are promises, threats, refusals, pledges, e.g.I promise to come. ）Expressives(表达) （Expressing an attitude about the situation or the speaker’s psychological state and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow, e.g.I’m sorry for being late.）Declarations(宣告) those utterances that the speaker uses to change a situation, e.g. I now appoint you chairman of the committee

4.Principle of conversation合作原则Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants

are expected to observe. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged.

5.Four maxims of CP：The Maxim of Quality： Try to make your contribution one that is true, i.e.(i) Do not say what you believe to be false; The Maxim of Quantity(i) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange) The Maxim of Relation：Be relevant. The Maxim of Manner ：Be perspicuous（明白易懂的(i) Avoid obscurity of expression;(ii) Avoid ambiguity;(iii) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity);(iv) Be orderly. To put it very simply, the CP means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.