The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation

Contents

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation ......................................... 1

I. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 1 II. The Thinking Modes of Chinese and English reflected in the Language .................................................................... 3

A. The Relationship of Thinking and Language ............................................................ 3 B. The Classification of Chinese and English Thinking Modes .................................... 6

1. The Synthetic Thinking Mode vs. the Analytic Thinking Mode ..... 7

2. The Curvilinear Thinking Mode vs. the Linear Thinking Mode ........ 8 3. The Image Thinking Mode vs. the Abstract Thinking Mode .......... 9

4. The Ontological Thinking Mode vs. the Objective Thinking Mode10

III. The Transfer of Thought Patterns in the Course of Translation ......................................................................... 11

A. Transferring between Concreteness and Abstractness ............................................. 11 B. Rearrangement of Word Order ................................................................................ 12 C. Transferring between Covert Coherence and Overt Cohesion ................................ 14 D. Rearrangement of Sentence Structure ..................................................................... 15 E. Transferring between the Subjective and the Objective .......................................... 17 IV. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 18 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................................ 20

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 1

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation

I. Introduction

Nowadays, more and more Chinese People be come to realize that it is a very urgent task to learn English well so as to meet the needs and challenges of the society. Under this circumstance of \"English Frenzy\a series of problems correspondently arise like mushrooms. How to improve the qualities of English teaching and learning in China nation widely? How to overcome and avoid misunderstandings in communication? How to enhance the overall level of E-C & C-E translation etc. Concerned with these problems, scholars, in the field of foreign language teaching and the field of translation, have made new approaches to the principles and methods to actuate their work, e.g. 1994 witnessed a new discipline upon the scene when China Association for Comparative Study of English and Chinese (CACSEC) was established with the initiation made by Zhang Zhiying and other scholars(Zhang Zhiying,2000).

However, a thorough study on the relationship between language and thought has been marginalized for long. In many books, dictionaries or monographs that specialized on language studies, this aspect is only a slight touch. As what the American scholar Marsh (2008) once noted in his book, American English Rhetoric, \"Even though English thought patterns are not native to you, once you understand them you can more easily imitate them. By doing so, you will succeed in writing more effective English.\" So, to write this paper means the author

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 2

take the challenge to follow those preceding footsteps and make new accomplishment, for there have been earlier introductions to the topic from which I myself have benefited.

Language, the most commonly accepted, is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. And thought, philosophically speaking, is a process of our human mind to reflect the objective reality. In terms of the relationship between language and thought, there are mainly two groups of views: the first is that language determines thought and the second is that thought determines language. So the whole we are concerned with in this paper is whether our thoughts are formed in advance of the words that we utter or whether our ideas are formed in advance of the words that we utter or whether our ideas are formed in terms of the words themselves. This paper firstly takes a deep insight into the root of the dialectical relation between language and thought(Gong Aihua,2004). And then, Chinese and English thought pattern differences are listed in mainly three aspects, namely, image thought vs. abstract thought, synthetic thought vs. analytic thought, and subjective thought vs. objective thought.

In addition, it has for centuries been taken for granted that translation merely takes place between languages(Gen Hongmin,2005). However, as proved by practice, translation cannot be viewed as a merely linguistic undertaking, but should be regarded as an aspect of a larger domain, namely, that of communication. In the case of complex texts, translation involves not only \"linguistic proficiency\" but also \"encyclopedic knowledge\"(Ma Jiguang,1999). It always involves a process full of contradictions. Being an important aspect of

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 3

\"inter-cultural communicationranslation has an important role to play in our epoch. Based on the relation between language and thought pattern, this paper explores the connection of translation with other disciplines, e.g. sociolinguistics& translation, contrastive linguistics& translation, and pragmatics& translation. Some skills or techniques on how to do E-C translation well are also highlighted in this paper, from which we can draw something beneficial to the enhancement of E-C translation (Zhu Shanjun,2005).

Starting from the discussion of the dialectical relation between thought and language, this paper provides detailed coverage of Chinese and English thought pattern differences, their reflections on the two languages and text structure, and offers some techniques on how to do E--C translation well.

II. The Thinking Modes of Chinese and English reflected in the Language

A. The Relationship of Thinking and Language

Human beings repeatedly recognize and understand the objective things during their practice in nature, and then form ideas in their brains, with which they use to judge and deduce things. That is the formation process of human thinking.

Thinking is a difficult term to define because of its abstract traits. Here are the definitions of thinking from some commanded dictionaries. On the page 2377 of Webster's Third New International Dictionary and page 650 of Britannica, thinking is taken as the action of producing thoughts, or a means of getting something in the objective world. In Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 10th Edition,

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 4

thinking is defined as \"an act that uses one's mind or the power of reason to make judgments, to form opinions.\" The definitions mentioned above show that thinking couldn't be separated from the human brain. In Concise Social Scientance Dictionary, thinking is viewed as \"the indirect, general reflection of objective substance, which is based on the social practice\" (Kaplan,1996). Now here is one of the definitions from the translation works. Fang Mengzhi takes it that way: \"Thinking is a cognitive process to make analysis, synthesis, judgment, inference etc. on the basis of figurativeness and concept. The study of brain shows that thinking is the synthesis of the physical, chemical and physiological motional forms in the neurological centre of human brain. It is a kind of complicated form of the motion of matter\" (Nida.2001). These tend to show that thinking is generally called the cognitive activity compared with existence, such as consciousness and spirits. People can only accumulate a wealth of perceptual materials by repeated social practice, and then start the essential work of analysis and synthesis. They get the knowledge of the essence and development laws of things through this way, and it can be applied to influence the objective world. Thinking has different forms such as logical thinking and image thinking etc. In short, thinking is an abstract thing that can impose its impact on the objective world(Ma Lanfang,2004).

In a word, thinking reflects the objective reality of human brain. It is also the process of the human brain to receive, process, store and output information guiding the human behavior.

Although thinking is a common ability of all human beings, each nation has

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 5

its typical ways of thinking. However, they can use the different thinking ways to express the same ideas and to get the same knowledge, and the only differences may be the different words, sentence orders or text structures in the different language expressions. So the scientific study of language is also necessary.

There are many definitions of language in different fields and even in translatology. Here is a typical one that associates with thinking to some degree.

Human language is a structured system for combining words that makes it possible for us to communicate with others, to think about our immediate environment, or to imagine(Sui Rongyi,2006). Language is not just speaking; language and speech are not the same thing. Speech is the oral production of language. Language is more abstract and multimodal; it can be manifested through signs, symbols, finger spelling, written words and Braille. We can further define language by looking at its properties (Samovar, 2000).

It can be concluded from the above that most scholars support that language and thinking interact and interweave with each other and thinking plays a main role in the relationship. Thinking is abstract, and it must take language as its medium to express the objective world. It is the process that human brain reflects the objective world. Reality is the basis of thinking, and it is also the object of thinking reflection. Thinking takes language as its medium to reflect reality. Language is the demonstration of thinking and helps thinking to form or show the ideas or thought in the deep brain. So thinking to some extent determines the language or influences the language expression. Human thinking activities are

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 6

expressed by the forms of words, phrases, sentences and texts etc, So thinking is a recognizing activity of the human brain to reflect the outside things, but language is the tool to communicate their thinking.

B. The Classification of Chinese and English Thinking Modes

Language is the most important communication tool for human beings, it is the outer shell of thinking and used to reflect and express the thoughts and ideas produced by thinking. In the long history of human development, people gradually cultivate the habits of understanding of the objective world, which with the help of language form the thoughts. The thoughts are summed up in patterns; and at last the thinking styles come into being. Different nation has different cultures and different thinking styles, patterns and thinking traits. These together form the thinking modes. Thinking modes not only influence the living styles of human beings but also the ways to do or think and express things. In this part the classification of the English and Chinese thinking modes will be discussed in order to give a clearer and more concrete understanding of their differences. Before the commencement of the study about the classification of the thinking modes, it should be made clear what thinking mode is.

As it referred to above that the different cultures, geography and living habits together form the thinking mode, which is a steady thinking pattern. \"The thinking modes are thinking models that embody certain thinking contents and certain thinking methods and apply to certain field\" (Vermeer,1987). That is to say the thinking mode is a kind of thinking model, which not only is formed from the

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 7

reality, but also guides the reality. It becomes a model for human beings to follow unconsciously. \"Different thinking modes directly restrict the choice, perfection, and adjustment of words and the arrangement of sentence order etc, the code process of language is the thinking process in the thinking modes which is formed by human beings in the long practice. Every thinking mode is historical, social and national. It is expressed in personal thinking activities that are the accumulation of the social history experiences.

So here come the following four pairs of thinking modes classified on the principle of realistic application in translation: the synthetic thinking mode vs. the analytic thinking mode; the curvilinear thinking mode vs. the linear thinking mode; the image thinking mode vs. the abstract thinking mode and the ontological thinking mode vs. the objective thinking mode.

1. The Synthetic Thinking Mode vs. the Analytic Thinking Mode

In philosophy, Chinese people emphasize the ideas of \"unity of heaven and manhe blending of objects and man\\"harmony\and \"the power of understanding\". Chinese people don't stress the analysis, but pay attention to \"the individual comprehension\order\". (GaoChunjuan.2005) However, the westerners think man and objects should be separated from each other and emphasize the form coherence and logical deduction due to their philosophy. As the famous translator Fu Lei once mentioned that there were basic differences between eastern and western thinking modes. He holds that the Easterners pay attention to synthesis, conclusion, hint and reservation, while the Westerners focus on analysis, the

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 8

pursuit of details, and the all-aspects description of things. This kind of thinking difference is on the philosophical basis, so it is the most common and complex one of the collisions. The difference can be seen in the following three aspects: The Holistic Thinking Mode vs. the Individual Thinking Mode; the Dialectical-focus Thinking Mode vs. Formal Logical-focus Thinking Mode; The Angles of Understanding the World

2. The Curvilinear Thinking Mode vs. the Linear Thinking Mode

The western philosophy thinks that if two things are different from each other, they are against and different from each other, which means the westerners focus on the differences of two things rather than the similarities. So the westerners apply the true or false deducing modes to think about things and matters. That is to say they think about things in linear ways. It is the Chinese tradition to pursue the unity and harmony of the world, so they don't distinguish two opponents clearly, because they think there are no absolutely and totally different things in the world. So the Chinese people have formed the curvilinear or spiral thinking mode. When the English people want to express an idea, they will directly put the topic sentence in the front or at the beginning of a paragraph. As to the Chinese people, they prefer to explain or describe an idea from the peripheries and the outside atmosphere to support the main idea or topic shown up at the end of the expression. The English from generalization to natives are used to applying the topic shown up at the end of the modes from general to concrete, illustration, from the whole to individual in sentence structuring, and these are the expressions of their linear thinking paragraph and mode.

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 9

3. The Image Thinking Mode vs. the Abstract Thinking Mode

In Chinese culture, people are particular about images and form the thinking mode of this kind. They are used to using the image to express the abstract notion, in that way the abstract notion can be more vivid and easy to understand. However, in western culture, people pay attention to the abstract thinking mode because they have the cultural tradition of esteeming the power of thinking. They prefer using the abstract notion to express the concrete objects, which means to get the inner rule of the objects(Sunli,2002).

The English-speaking natives are good at describing things in abstract ways; they prefer the ability to use the power of abstract thinking. But the Chinese people respect the unity of heaven and human, they put the abstract things on a concrete basis. So it becomes a tradition for Chinese people to express abstract things through concrete images. These differences show that the English-speaking natives are used to expressing the complex rational or mental concepts with abstract nouns, but the Chinese people the concrete, vivid nouns to describe them.

In fact, the language itself can prove the differences. Chinese itself is the imagery language. Chinese characters are the mimicry of natural phenomenon and are called imagery language. Chinese focus on the image and meaning implied in the language and consider the image more important than language itself. Maybe the most appropriate way to show this characteristic is the Chinese poem which can be called the picture of sentences. The Chinese people describe the image by way of using imagery sentences. However, English is a kind of alphabetic writing instead of the mimicry of the natural phenomenon. It is

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 10

man-made regulated signals. The signals establish the symbolic signs based on reason and determine the meaning by the sound combination. It depends on the human being's ability of subjective analysis, summary. So English is signalized and logical and it is easy to have the abstract thinking.

4. The Ontological Thinking Mode vs. the Objective Thinking Mode The Chinese people regard man as the centre to observe, analyze, deduce and study the objects, and then form the ontological thinking mode. The English-speaking people take the objective world as the centre. One of the examples of the two different thinking modes in language is the choice of sentence subject. The Chinese people prefer to use the animate to be the subject of a sentence, but the English-speaking people prefer to use the inanimate to be the subject. So Chinese don't express things in clear order and the sentences are always full of implications. But in English, the impersonal nouns are preferred to be the subjects of sentences, and the active voice is totally different from the passive voice in the expression effects too. For example, \"Thoughts of Christmas were the only thing on my mind.\"“我脑子里想的全是圣诞节.\" In the English sentence, the inanimate phrase, \"thoughts of Christmas\ is the subject while in Chinese translation, “脑子“the subject also needs to add\"我\"to show the subjective feature of the brain(Gao Guilian, 1999).

nǎozǐ

wǒ

wǒnǎozǐlixiǎngdequánshìshèngdànjié

The differences of thinking mode pairs only show that the Chinese and Western thinking modes have focuses of their own. The differences are relative not definite. The Chinese thinking modes do not only have the unique characters as the synthetic thinking mode, the image thinking mode and the ontological

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 11

thinking mode etc. while the Western thinking modes do not only have the analytic thinking mode, the abstract thinking mode and the objective thinking mode etc. These are just the most popular different thinking modes used most frequently in each nation, and can be accepted easily and unconsciously.

The thinking modes all bear the objective character but don't have the differentiation between superior and the inferior. The differences between the Chinese and Western thinking modes and the collisions that they cause in the translation process show that they are supplementary and complementary. The translator should pay attention to the influences of different thinking modes in the different language to improve the translation quality and draw on the thinking modes to recognize them correctly and develop a series of techniques to deal with them.

III. The Transfer of Thought Patterns in the Course of Translation

A. Transferring between Concreteness and Abstractness

The concrete pattern of thought in China and the abstract pattern of thought in the West manifest themselves in Chinese and Western languages with their characteristics of concreteness and abstractness respectively. For instance, \"种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆\"，is translated into \"As you sow, you will reap. \"Here, the Chinese people use the concrete things\"瓜\"and\"豆\"to express the meaning of \"sow\" and \"reap\" in English (Geng Hongmin, 2005).

guā

dòu

guā

zhòngdòudédòu

zhòngguādé

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 12

According to the different patterns of thought, the preference of the use of verb, noun and preposition in Chinese and Western languages is different. Abstract nouns and prepositions are preferred in English, which leads to abstractness and tranquility. Verbs are preferred in Chinese, which leads to concreteness and dynamic. In the course of translation from English to Chinese, the transfer between concreteness and abstractness can be accomplished by means of using category words, converting parts of speech, using figurative words, and proper addition of words.

B. Rearrangement of Word Order

We have often to rearrange the word order when we translate from English into Chinese. It is because the two languages have their own characteristics. The Chinese integral pattern of thought produces a general-particular order in Chinese language. The Western analytical pattern of thought produces a particular-general order in English language. For instance, attributive phrases and clauses usually follow the words they modify in English whereas they usually precede the modified words in Chinese. Englishmen and Americans prefer to put the adverbials of time and of place at the end of a sentence while we Chinese people often have them at the beginning. If these two kinds of adverbial coexist in a single sentence, the adverbials of time usually follow those of place in English, but they are exactly in the reverse order in Chinese. In English sentences, the possessive pronoun often goes before the noun it stands for and the personal pronoun appears in the subordinate clause previous to the main clause. However, nouns are always mentioned first in Chinese sentences. The above characteristics and other ones not

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 13

yet mentioned here necessitate the rearrangement of word order in the translation between the English and Chinese languages. E.g.

1) Source sentence: The suggestion put forward by the teacher was accepted by his students.

lǎoshītídejiànyìbèixuéshēngjiēshòule

Its target version: 老师提的建议被学生接受了.

2) Source sentence: The woman holding a baby in her arms is waiting to see the doctor.

nàgèshǒulibàozháoyīngérdefùnǚzhèngděngzháoyīshēngkànbìng

Its target version:那个手里抱着婴儿的妇女正等着医生看病.

3) Source sentence: The National Science Conference was held in Beijing in 1977.

quánguókēxuéhuìyìshìyījiǔqīqīniánzàiběijīngjǔxíngde

Its target version:全国科学会议是一九七七年在北京举行的.

4) Source sentence: When he was twelve, Mark Twain lost his father.

mǎkè

tǔwēnshíèrsuìshíshīqùle

tā

fùqīn

Its target version:马克.吐温十二岁时失去了(他)父亲.

5) Source sentence: In her novel Jahe Eyre, Charlotte Bronte gives a very vivid description of the ill-treatment of the girls at Lowood.

xiàluòtèbùlǎngdìzài

tāde

xiǎoshuōj

iǎnà

ilishēngdòngdìmiáohuìleluówǔdéxuéxiàonǚ

Its target version:夏洛特.布朗蒂在(她的)小说《简爱》里生动地描绘了罗伍德学校女

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 14

学生受虐待的情形(Ji Qingfen,2004).

xuéshēngshòunüèdàideqíngxíng

C. Transferring between Covert Coherence and Overt Cohesion

As far as the sentence structure is concerned, the most striking feature in Chinese and Western languages is that Chinese emphasizes parataxis and covert coherence/ cohesion? while English stresses hypo taxis and overt cohesion. When we translate between Chinese and English, we should pay attention to the transfer between covert coherence and overt cohesion.

English long sentence is often formed by conjunction, preposition, participial phrase, and all kinds of clauses introduced by relative pronoun or relative adverb. While Chinese often use a series of short and concise sentences to express a complex meaning according to the sequence of time and logic. E.g.

tāmenqùyòngcānměijiǔjiāyáo

shǐtāmenyědùnshòugǎnrǎnyántánjiānjuéwúè

yì

shènzhì

1) Source sentence:他们去用餐.美酒佳肴，使他们也顿受感染.言谈间绝无恶意，甚至有友好之情.

yǒuyǒuhǎozhīqíng

Its target version: They went to dinner. It was excellent, and the wine was good. Influence presently had its effect on them. They talked not only without acrimony, but even with friendliness. (Jia Rongwu.2003)

In the above Chinese sentence, there are only two”他们”as the link of the discourse. In its English translation, besides the translation of the two”他们”，that is \"they, them\ it adds another four (one \"it\ two \"its\ and one \"they\

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 15

which leads to the coherence of the translation.

bìxūcǎiqǔcuòshī

gǎishàntóuzīhuánjìng

qiēshízhìzhǐduìqǐyèluàntānpài

luànshōufèi

2) Source sentence:必须采取措施，改善投资环境，切实制止对企业乱摊派、乱收费的错误做法.

decuòwùzuòfǎ

Its target version: Measures to improve investment environment must be taken, and, above all, to check improper practices, such as sharing extra expenses among foreign and joint enterprises and collecting unreasonable fees among them(Li Jianli,2005).

A series of short and concise sentences expressing a complete meaning are preferred subordinate conjunctions, infinitives and clauses to combine these short sentences, in order to get the translation in conformity with the English expression in Chinese. As a result, when translating from Chinese into English, we should use subordinate conjunctions, infinitives and clauses to combine these short sentences, in order to get the translation in conformity with the English expression.

D. Rearrangement of Sentence Structure

We have often to rearrange the sentence structure when we translate between English and Chinese. It is because the two languages have each their own characteristics. According to these different features between Chinese and English languages, it can be found that Chinese and English speakers have different alignment of information. English speakers are accustomed to laying the important information first, just declaring his intention right at the outset,

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 16

coming straight to the point, and then adding all the symbols slowly and calmly. Chinese, on the contrary, describes the environment outside clearly and then touches the main information, just makes the reader feel suddenly enlightened. The sentence structure is laid out according to the order of logic and time. On a whole, Chinese and English languages have the different, or even opposite semantic stress of sentences. The longer subject part structure is preferred in Chinese, while the shorter subject part structure in English. Therefore, the sentence stress should be rearranged when doing translation between English and Chinese. E.g.

1 Source sentence: I went out for a walk after I had my dinner.

wǎnfànhòuwǒchūqùsànbù

Its target version:晚饭后我出去散步.

2) Source sentence: He has to stay at home because he is ill.

tābìnglezhǐdédāizàijieli

Its target version:他病了只得呆在家里.

3) Source sentence: His chief contribution was making me realize how much more than

Knowledge I had been getting from him.

tāshǐwǒrènshidào

wǒcóngtānàlixuédàode

yuǎnyuǎnbùzhǐshìzhīshí

zhèshìtāzuìdà

Its target version:他使我认识到，我从他那里学到的，远远不只是知识，这是他最大的贡献(Liu Meili,2002).

degòngxiàn

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 17

E. Transferring between the Subjective and the Objective

As discussed before, the Chinese patterns of thought put emphasis on the subjective world while the Western patterns of thought lay stress on the objective world. When we do translation between Chinese and English, we should pay attention to the transferring between the subjective and the objective.

The transferring between the subjective and the objective manifests itself mainly in two aspects, the transfer of sentence subjects and the transfer of sentence voice.

In accordance with the emphasis on the subjective world in the Chinese patterns of thought, Chinese is accustomed to employing the noun or pronoun expressing man or creature as the subject in a sentence. Compared with the Chinese patterns of thought, the Western patterns of thought stress the objective world, which result in the employment of non-personal subjects, such as objects or abstract concept in English. When translating from English into Chinese, the sentence structure of English cannot be copied without any changes into Chinese version. Proper change of subject is needed. E.g.

1) Source sentence: The moment we stepped into the country, care and kindness surrounded us on every side.

Target Version a:一踏上国土，到处都是关怀与照顾包围着我们. Target Version b:一踏上国土，我们就随时随地感受到关怀与照顾.

2) Source sentence: The forty years brought almost ten million migrants

yītàshàngguótǔ

wǒmenjiùsuíshísuídìgǎnshòudàoguānhuáiyǔzhàogù

yitashangguotu

dàochùdōushìguānhuáiyǔzhàogùbāowéizháowǒmen

The Influence of the Difference between English and Chinese Thinking on Translation 18

to America.

Target Version a:四十年带来近一千万移民移居美国.

Target Version b:四十年来，近一千万移民移居美国.(Liu Wenhui.2002)

From the above examples, it is obvious that translation b is much better than translation a and seems to be more natural, coherent and idiomatic in that translation conforms to Chinese patterns of thought and the common practice in Chinese expressions. IV. Conclusion

sìshíniánlái

jìnyīqiānwànyímínyíjūměiguó

sìshíniándàiláijìnyīqiānwànyímínyíjūměiguó

The contrastive study of Chinese and Western patterns of thought, as viewed from their respective linguistic expressions reveals the fact that they are two different systems in many ways. In this study, it advances five techniques for translation through the study of the thinking modes of Chinese and English reflected in the language.

This study, preliminary made in the translation process advances that translator should subject to the five principles of translation. Then these principles can help the translator make the translation natural and preciseness.

This thesis has roughed out five techniques in translation but the theory is not yet ripe, and it does not form a complete method pending a further study. Bibliography

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Acknowledgements

First, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all the respected professors and teachers from whom I have learned not only the knowledge but also the way of related disciplines, and serious attitude to do research work.

Second, I would like to express my hearty appreciation to my teacher Liao Suyun for her rigorous and expert direction. Her effective guidance research enabled me to implement the work smoothly. Her insightful comments on the study have been both encouraging and helpful. Her constant help and care have always inspired me to learn more. Her kind also offers me lots of good materials.

Finally, I would like to thank the librarians in our campus library, for they have helped me to find various reference books needed for my study.