电视购物前因讨论

2020-09-17 来源：步旅网

National Cheng Kung University Institute of International Business

Master’s Thesis

電視購物前因之探討

Antecedents of Television Shopping

Student: Hsien-Kai Chen Advisor: Dr. Dung-Chun Tsai

June, 2008

摘要

由於科技的進步，使得電視購物成為零售業當中具潛力的通路之一。在現今，不管是在電視購物的發源地美國，或是在我們台灣，當地的電視購物業者都已創造出可觀的營收數據，以實務面來看，電視購物之所以值得研究，是因為它的高額營收以及它的高度的成長力，然而，由學術面來看，過去有關電視購物的研究多集中在單一或少數的消費者購買動機，甚少研究將電視購物獨有的特色完整表現出來，此篇研究係透過建立一個探討電視購物前因的模型，來完整了解電視購物的消費行為。

在模型當中，假設個人變數（包括知覺風險、對電視購物的態度以及衝動性購買的特質），情境變數(包括可看電視的時間，可外出購物的時間，以及每月可支配所得)以及刺激變數（包括促銷刺激的曝露及主持人與代言名人的魅力）會影響一群內生變數，包括看電視購物頻道的時間，正面情緒，以及購買衝動，最後，並影響消費者是否進行電視購物。

研究方法採用問卷調查及深度訪談。透過在當地一個大型消費廣場發放問卷來蒐集統計分析所需的資料，並使用統計軟體AMOS 5.0對假設模型進行驗證，在另一方面，也邀請十五位具有電視購物經驗的消費者來進行深度訪談，透過與消費者的訪談，來了解各變數之間假設關係更深層的意涵。

分析結果支持大部分的假設關係，其主要的發現如下：

（1）消費者的電視購物行為會受購買衝動及可支配所得正面地影響，並受到知覺風

險負面地影響。

（2）消費者的購買衝動受到電視購物頻道的時間、正面情緒、衝動性購買特質及促

銷刺激曝露正面地影響。

（3）消費者看電視購物頻道的時間會受到正面情緒、對電視購物的態度及可看電視

的時間正面地影響，另一方面，並受到可外出購物的時間負面地影響。（4）消費者的正面情緒會受到促銷刺激曝露以及主持人與代言名人的魅力正面地

影響。

此外，以研究結論為基礎，提供未來研究的方向以及實務上的建議。關鍵字：電視購物、在家購物、衝動性購買

III

Abstract

Due to technological progress, television shopping becomes one promising shopping channel in the retail industry. Whether in the leading market United States or in Taiwan, television shopping operators have achieved considerable sales. Television shopping is important to study not only due to its sales volume but also due to its growth potential. However, prior literature tends to focus on single or a few motivations; less research address the unique character of the television shopping environment. A model of the antecedents of television shopping is proposed to fully understand television shopping buying behaviors.

Individual difference variables (perceived risk, attitude toward television shopping, and impulse buying tendency), situational variables (time available for television viewing, time available for going out shopping, and money available), and stimulating variables (promotional stimuli exposure and attraction of program host and celebrity guest) are supposed to influence a set of endogenous variables, including positive affect, television shopping exposure, and buying urge, and ultimately, whether or not a television shopping purchase occurred.

The methodology is adopted by a questionnaire survey and in-depth interviews. The hypothesized model is empirically tested with data drawn from a questionnaire survey at a regional shopping mall. Analysis of the data, utilizing AMOS 5.0, supported most of the predictions. Additionally, in-depth interviews are conducted to support the meaningfulness of the hypothesized model.

The major findings of this study are as follow:

(1) Television shopping is positively influenced by buying urge and money available, and is negatively influenced by perceived risk.

(2) Buying urge is positively affected by television shopping exposure, positive affect, impulse buying tendency, and promotional stimuli exposure.

(3) Television shopping exposure is positively influenced by positive affect, attitude toward television shopping, and time available for television viewing, and is negatively influenced by time available for going out shopping.

(4) Positive affect is positively influenced by promotional stimuli exposure and attraction of program host and celebrity guest.

Besides, future research and managerial implications are addressed based on research conclusions.

Keywords: television shopping, home shopping, impulse buying

誌謝

當開始在寫這一頁時，也意味我的學生涯即將結束，二十年的求學路程，儘管一路跌跌撞撞，但也因此有所成長。兩年的研究所生活，對我來說，是一段艱苦的歷程，卻也是一段最美好的回憶，回首過去的兩年生活，總是忙於做報告和寫論文，日出已經算不清楚看了幾遍，但幸虧身旁總是有同儕的陪伴與貴人的相助，讓我得以順利完成學業。

研究所能順利畢業，最要感謝的人莫過於我的指導教授蔡東峻老師。老師他總是很忙，但不管多忙，花在我們學生身上的時間永遠不會少，每個禮拜都會花幾個小時的時間跟我們Meeting討論論文，此外，一有空閒，老師也會帶著我們精敬家族的成員到處走走，也因為如此，讓家族內的成員相處融洽，在研究所的生活中，能夠互相幫助、一起成長。此外，也感謝博士班的曉青學姐及薇薇學姐，他們平常都得忙錄於本身的博士學業，但還是特地每個禮拜抽空陪我們Meeting，給我們建議，幫助我們解決在論文上的許多困難。當然，戰友們一起奮戰的精神，是寫論文不可缺的一股力量，感謝緯倫、鴻侑、彥君兩年來的一起奮戰，一路相互扶持與砥礪，同時也要感謝精敬家族裡的婉雯、慧玲、文婷、慈恩四位學妹，過去一年來的幫忙，讓我們碩二的能無憂無慮專注於論文上。

除了精敬家族的成員外，有幸也能得到國企所班上同學一路的陪伴，尤其是育德、奕明以及朋遠三位好哥們，常常一起待在研究室寫論文到天亮，偶爾聚在一起喝個小酒聊個八卦，因為你們，讓我在成大國企所的日子不會孤單。另外，要特別感謝大學時代的慈翊學長、一信學長及好友心愉，在我進行論文資料蒐集時，提供資源來協助，讓我的論文能順利完成。

最後，我想把我今日的成果獻給我最親愛的家人，感謝我爸爸媽媽二十幾年來的栽培與照顧，儘管家裡的經濟狀況只有小康，但爸爸媽媽從來不會讓我在求學過程中有經濟上的擔憂，只要是有關於學習方面的事，他們都會給予我全面的支持，讓我能夠全心專注於課業，也感謝哥哥，已經開始辛苦賺錢，讓爸爸媽媽能夠稍微放輕鬆一點，有他們的支持才能成就今日的我。謝謝你們!

陳獻凱謹誌於

成功大學國際企業研究所

民國九十七年六月

Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Motivation ................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Objective ..................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 2 Literature Review.............................................................................................. 5 2.1 Buying Urge and Television Shopping ........................................................................ 5 2.2 Television Shopping Exposure and Positive Affect .................................................... 5 2.2.1 Television Shopping Exposure ................................................................................. 5 2.2.2 Positive Affect .......................................................................................................... 6 2.3 Individual Difference Variables ................................................................................... 6 2.3.1 Perceived Risk .......................................................................................................... 7 2.3.2 Attitude toward Television Shopping ....................................................................... 8 2.3.3 Impulse Buying Tendency ........................................................................................ 8 2.4 Situational Variables .................................................................................................... 9 2.4.1 Time Variables .......................................................................................................... 9 2.4.2 Money Available .................................................................................................... 10 2.5 Stimulating Variables ................................................................................................ 10 2.5.1 Promotional Stimuli Exposure ................................................................................ 11 2.5.2 Attraction of Program Host and Celebrity Guest .................................................... 11 Chapter3 Methodology ..................................................................................................... 13 3.1 Research Framework and Hypotheses ...................................................................... 13 3.2 Preliminary Efforts .................................................................................................... 16 3.3 Measurement ............................................................................................................. 17 3.4 Pretest ........................................................................................................................ 23 Chapter 4 Results and Discussion .................................................................................... 27 4.1 Data Collection and Sample ...................................................................................... 27 4.2 Results ....................................................................................................................... 27 4.2.1 Reliability Test ....................................................................................................... 27 4.2.2 Validity Test ............................................................................................................ 30

VII

4.2.3 Structural Equation Model ..................................................................................... 34 4.2.4 The Rivial Model.................................................................................................... 38 4.3 Discussion ................................................................................................................. 40 4.3.1 Discussion of Specific Findings ............................................................................. 40 4.3.2 Discussion of In-depth Interviews .......................................................................... 43 Chapter 5 Conclusion and Suggestion............................................................................. 51 5.1 Research Conclusions ............................................................................................... 51 5.2 Managerial Implications ............................................................................................ 53 5.3 Limitations and Future Work..................................................................................... 55 References .......................................................................................................................... 56 Appendix I: Survey Questionnaire .................................................................................. 59 Appendix II: Frequency of Purchase............................................................................... 64 Appendix III: Frequency of Product Categories ............................................................ 65

VIII

List of Figures

Figure 1 The Proposed Model………………………………………………………14 Figure 1 Final Structural Model……………………………………………………35 Figure 1 The Rival Model…...………………………………………………………39

List of Tables

Table 3 - 1 Research Hypotheses ...............................................................................15 Table 3 - 2 Demographics of Interviewees ...............................................................16 Table 3 - 3 Measurement of Television Shopping ....................................................17 Table 3 - 4 Measurement of Buying Urge .................................................................17 Table 3 - 5 Measurement of Television Shopping Exposure ...................................18 Table 3 - 6 Measurement of Positive Affect ..............................................................18 Table 3 - 7 Measurement of Perceived Risk .............................................................19 Table 3 - 8 Measurement of Attitude toward Television Shopping ........................20 Table 3 - 9 Measurement of Impulse Buying Tendency ..........................................20 Table 3 - 10 Measurement of Time Available for Television Viewing ....................21 Table 3 - 11 Measurement of Time Available for Going Out Shopping .................21 Table 3 - 12 Measurement of Promotional Stimuli Exposure ................................22 Table 3 - 13 Measurement of Attraction of Host Program and Celebrity Guest ..23 Table 3 - 14 Final Items of the Questionnaire ..........................................................24 Table 4 - 1 Demographics of the Sample ..................................................................28 Table 4 - 2 Reliability Analysis ..................................................................................29 Table 4 - 3 Validity Analysis ......................................................................................31 Table 4 - 4 Discriminant Validity Analysis ...............................................................33 Table 4 - 5 Mode Fit Indices ......................................................................................34 Table 4 - 6 Results of Final Structural Equation Model .........................................36 Table 4 - 7 Comparison between Hypothesized Model and Rival Model .............40 Table 4 - 8 Total Effects of Variables on Television Shopping ................................41 Table 4 - 9 Total Effects of Variables on Buying Burge ..........................................41 Table 4 - 10 Total Effects of Variables on Television Shopping Exposure .............42 Table 4 - 11 Total Effects of Variables on Positive Affect ........................................43

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Background

In-home shopping channels (e.g. television shopping, internet shopping and catalog shopping) have been growing rapidly in recent years and have created new ways for marketers to reach and serve consumers efficiently. Because of technological progress and the active shopping environment, television shopping seems to be one of the most promising sales distribution channels (Mafé and Blas 2007).

Television shopping was introduced in the U.S. in 1980s. Nowadays, Quality Value Convenience (QVC) and Home Shopping Network (HSN) dominate the U.S. television shopping market, and they both have expanded overseas. QVC led with $5.7 billion in sales in 2006 (QVC.com, 2007), and HSN had $3.29 billion in sales in 2006 (HSN.com, 2007). These two companies’ sales achievements have exceeded other famous selling channels such as Amazon (Park and Lennon 2006).

In Taiwan, the legalization of cable television prompts the development of television shopping (Li 2004), and there are three major television shopping operators, including Eastern Home Shopping (EHS), Fubon momo TV, and ViVa TV. The leading operator EHS reached over one hundred million memberships and reported 280 billion N.T. dollars in 2004 total sales revenue. Further, several incredible selling records have been achieved in EHS shopping channels such as two hundred fifty sports utility vehicles sold within 60 minutes (EMG.com.tw). The sales achievement of EHS has exceeded that of most of the traditional retailers and made EHS to be a major force in retailing in Taiwan. Thus, television shopping has turned out to be a new retail trend.

1.2 Motivation

Television shopping is important to study not only because of its sales volume but also because of its growth potential. However, it is startling how little we know about the television shopping buying behaviors and the variables affecting its enactment. Previous studies on television shopping have focused on single or a few motivations. For example, McDonald (1995) showed that there are eight major buying motivations, including

interests in product value, confidence in merchandise recommendations, and enjoyment of the personalities who host the programming etc., for television shoppers. Further, Stephens, Hill and Bergman (1996) used a content analysis to extract that a consumer forms buying urge due to the parasocial relationship with the program host. However, there is limited research to address the unique character of the television shopping environment (Park and Lennon 2006). For example, the actual time character of television shopping is such that consumers can not well arrange their shopping plans. Consumers may be much affected by program hosts and repeated media exposure that encourage them to buy impulsively, and this makes television shopping to be an inherent impulse buying situation (Park and Lennon 2006). Beatty and Ferrell (1998) develop the Impulse Buying Model to examine the factors inducing buying urge and impulse buying in the traditional shopping environment. Because television shopping environment appears to be an inherent impulse buying situation, this study will apply the Impulse Buying Model developed by Beatty and Ferrell (1998) to the television shopping context to understand television shopping buying behaviors.

The Impulse Buying Model suggested that individual variables (including impulse buying tendency and shopping enjoyment) and situational variables (including time available and money available) influence a set of endogenous variables (including mood state, the level of browsing, and buying urge), and ultimately, whether or not an impulse purchase happens.

We follow the setting of the Impulse Buying Model. A set of exogenous antecedents and a set of endogenous variables are included to understand the real purchase behavior. The first exogenous antecedent individual difference variables includes perceived risk, attitude toward television shopping, and impulse buying tendency. The second exogenous antecedent situational variables includes time available for going out shopping, time available for television viewing, and money available. The last exogenous antecedent stimulating variables is included to manifest unique characteristics of television shopping, and it includes promotional stimuli exposure and the attraction of program host and celebrity guest. These three exogenous antecedents are supposed to influence endogenous variables, including television shopping exposure, positive affect, and felt urge to buy, and ultimately, whether or not a real television shopping purchase happens.

Beatty and Ferrell (1998) discuss buying behaviors in the traditional retailing context,

and this study discusses those in the television shopping context. Because the shopping context is different, some variables will be modified somewhat. The variable shopping enjoyment will be excluded because it means an individual obtains pleasure in the shopping process within a shopping mall context (Beatty and Ferrell 1998) that may discourage consumers from television shopping. Further, an individual’s attitude toward perceived attributes of a store is important to the ultimate buying behavior in whatever shopping distribution channels, and hence the variable attitude toward television shopping will be included into individual difference variables. Furthermore, researchers repeatedly stressed that consumers’ perceived risks could be an obstacle for television shopping (Burgess 2003; Park and Lennon 2006; Solomon 1994; Sundaram and Taylor 1998) because perceived risk may affect buying behaviors. Hence, perceived risk will be included to this study to be discussed. On the other hand, situational variables (money available and time available) will be discussed from a viewpoint of the television shopper in this study.

The television shopping program hosts are good at utilizing conversational skills to encouraging viewers to form parasocial relationships with them and using these connections to prompting products (Grant et al. 1991; Park and Lennon 2006; Stephens et al. 1996); a celebrity guest is usually employed as a co-host to enhance the image of television shopping (Solomon 1994). Besides, in the television shopping context, viewers are exposure to a great deal of promotional stimuli. For example, products on television shopping channels are displayed with some urgency which is present in the form of a counter on the screen (Grant et al. 1991; Ridgway and Monika 2005). Due to the importance of promotional stimuli exposure and attraction of program host and celebrity guest, stimulating variables are included to understand television shopping buying behaviors.

Beatty and Ferrell suggested that an individual’s mood state will affect his ore her buying behavior, especially impulse buying behaviors. We also suppose that an individual’s mood state will contribute to the television shopping behaviors. Television shopping appears to be a more active shopping environment than the traditional shopping channel, because it has many unique marketing stimuli, such as music, lamplight, marquee and etc. (Stephens et al 1998). These elements may motivate consumers and affect their mood states. Further, television shopping exposure is conceptualized as the browsing behavior, which plays an important role in understanding purchase behaviors (Beatty and Ferrell),

and it is supposed to be an important endogenous variable in understanding television shopping buying behaviors. The consumer’s buying intention will be conceptualized as buying urge which can reflect the inherent nature of impulsive television shopping environment.

1.3 Objective

This study focuses on exploring exogenous antecedents ( including individual variables, situational variables, and stimulating variables) will influence endogenous variables (including television shopping exposure, positive affect, and buying urge), and ultimately, whether or not a television shopping buying behavior happens. Therefore, the objectives of this study are as follow:

1. To verify the influence of buying urge, money available, and perceived risk on television shopping.

2. To investigate the impact of television shopping exposure, positive affect, promotional stimuli exposure, and impulse buying tendency on buying urge and television shopping.

3. To sequentially explore the influence of positive affect, attitude toward television shopping, time available for television viewing, and time available for going out shopping, on television shopping exposure.

4. To examine the impact of promotional stimuli exposure and attraction of program host and celebrity guest on positive affect.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

In this chapter, we will review literature related to television shopping. There are five sections in this chapter. First, we investigate the relationship between buying urge and television shopping. Then, we examine the impact of television shopping exposure and positive affect. After that, we sequentially explore the influence of individual difference variables, situational variables, and stimulating variables on television shopping buying behaviors.

2.1 Buying Urge and Television Shopping

Buying urge is a sudden and spontaneous desire to buy something (Rook and Hoch 1985). The urge or desire is usually powerful and irresistible (Beatty and Ferrell 1998), but it is not always carried out. It may be restrained by a moderating factor, such as normative evaluations (Rook and Fisher 1995) or shopping partners (Luo 2005). The buying urge happens when people meet an item or a promotional incentive unexpectedly in the shopping environment that precedes the real buying behavior (Beatty and Ferrell 1998). In this study, the television shopping is the final dependent variable, and it implicates the real consumption of merchandise or completion of the urge. Thus, the first hypothesis is as follows:

H1: Buying urge has a positive effect on television shopping.

2.2 Television Shopping Exposure and Positive Affect

In this section, television shopping exposure and positive affect will be discussed. Both of these two variables are supposed to positively influence buying urge, and in turn have positive effects on television shopping buying behaviors.

2.2.1 Television Shopping Exposure

Television shopping exposure is the average time respondents watched television shopping programs within a period of time. In previous studies, television shopping exposure is considered to be one of the most significant precursors of television shopping (Grant et al. 1991; Li 2004; Mafé and Blas 2007; Skumanich and Kintsfather 1998).

According to Jarboe and McDaniel (1987), when people browse longer, they are more

likely to be stimulated by a product. The linking of in-store browsing and buying urge comes from the concept of physical proximity (Beatty and Ferrell 1998). Rook (1987) suggested that when people browse through products in the physical store, they may be stimulated by a product and feel a sudden urge to buy. Dholakia (2000) suggested that the buying urge can also be motivated by a visual encounter. In the television shopping context, shoppers are not actually in physical proximity to merchandise, but they are in virtual proximity to merchandise (Ridgway and Monika 2005). Hence, consumers with more exposure to television shopping are more likely to recognize need for a product (Park and Lennon 2006). Thus, we expect that there is a positive relationship between television shopping exposure and buying urge. Therefore, we offer the following hypothesis: H2: Television shopping exposure has a positive effect on buying urge.

2.2.2 Positive Affect

Watson, Clark, and Tellegen (1988, p.1063) suggested that “Positive Affect (PA) reflects the extent to which a person feels enthusiastic, active, and alert.” People with positive moods are more likely to reward themselves more bountifully, and these positive moods can be conceptualized as positive affect (Beatty and Ferrell 1998).

According to Beatty and Ferrell (1998), a person’s positive affect may be affected by individual and situational variables, including pre-existing mood, affective disposition, and reactions to current environmental encounter. This study will focus on the positive affect produced in the environment to fit the television setting. When an individual is in a good mood (e.g. experiencing positive affect), s/he usually intends to maintain the elevated mood by doing something, such as buying more products (Beatty and Ferrell 1998; Heilman, Nakamoto, and Rao 2002). Thus, there appears to be a positive relationship between positive affect and buying urge. Therefore, we offer the following hypothesis: H3a: Positive affect has a positive effect on buying urge.

H3b: Positive affect has a positive effect on television shopping exposure.

2.3 Individual Difference Variables

In this study, three individual difference variables are predicted to influence the endogenous variables: perceived risk, attitude toward television shopping, and impulse buying tendency. All of them have been discussed with television shopping. To fully model

the factors influencing television shopping buying behaviors, three variables are all discussed here.

2.3.1 Perceived Risk

Perceived risk is “the consumer’s perceptions of the uncertainty and adverse consequences of buying a product or service” (Dowling and Staelin 1994, p119), and the level of perceived risk depends on the consumer’s subjective explanation of the uncertainty (Burgess 2003). In the home shopping format, the absence of an opportunity to personally inspect the operation and quality of merchandise will cause consumers to perceive risk (Darian 1987; Sundaram and Taylor 1998). According to Burgess (2003), in addition to the overall perceived risk, there are five major types of perceived risk, including financial, performance, functional, social, and time risk, in the television shopping environment. The definitions for the five types of risk are as follows: (a) financial risk refers to the probability that purchase results in loss of money, (b) performance risk refers to the probability that a product purchased results in failure to function as expected, (c) functional risk refers to that shopping experience results in failure to satisfactory as expected, (d) social risk refers to the probability that a product purchased results in disapproval by family or friends, (e) time risk refers to the probability that a purchase results in loss of time to wait for merchandise delivery.

Perceived risk may discourage consumers from fulfilling the buying urge due to the uncertain outcome (Schiffman and Kanuk 2000), and it plays a role in influencing consumer’s choice of shopping mode because they have a variety of alternative shopping forms to patronize (Darden and Dorsch 1990). Greater perceived risk than store shopping is one of the costs of in-home shopping (Darian 1987), which has been an obstacle faced by television shopping operators and other non-store formats (Burgess 2003). Gillett (1976) suggested that high perceived risk of buying by description explains why many shoppers are hesitant to buy at home. In addition to lacking of a chance to personally examine merchandise (Stephens et al. 1996), the risks television shoppers perceive also come from exaggerated hosts who use dishonest information to prompt products (Li 2004). Thus, we expect that perceived risk will cause a negative effect on television shopping buying behaviors. Therefore, the next hypothesis is offered:

H4: Perceived risk has a negative effect on television shopping.

2.3.2 Attitude toward Television Shopping

Attitude toward television shopping is defined as “an individual’s cognitive and affective evaluations of attributes of television shopping programs” (Eastlick and Liu 1997, p.17). Davis (1989) suggested that the intention to use a technology is decided by the individual’s attitude toward the use of that technology. Similarly, Shim and Eastlick (1998) found that shoppers with a favorable attitude toward a specific mode of shopping will be more likely to search that specific shopping mode for their needs.

Researchers studying attitudes toward home shopping showed that individuals’ attitudes toward home shopping will influence their intent to buy via in-home shopping network (Akaah et al. 1995). On the hand, Li (2004) suggested that television shopping has been criticized for using incredible information or inappropriate materials to sell products; hence, customers will have hesitance about accepting television shopping due to formed negative attitude toward television shopping. On the other hand, television shopping is accepted gradually because it is viewed as a safer and more secure shopping environment and provides more appealing merchandise and more products information (Solomon 1994). This positive attitude toward perceived attributes of television shopping will encourage consumers to patronize television shopping (Eastlick and Liu 1997; Mafé and Blas 2007). Thus, we expect that an individual’s attitude toward television shopping will affect his or her television shopping exposure level. Therefore, these ideas produce the following hypotheses:

H5: Attitude toward television shopping has a positive effect on television shopping

exposure.

2.3.3 Impulse Buying Tendency

Beatty and Ferrell (1998, p.174) defined impulse buying tendency (IBT) as “both the tendencies (1) to experience spontaneous and sudden urges to make on-the-spot purchases and (2) to act on these felt urges with little deliberation or evaluation of consequence”, and they suggested that individuals with higher IBT would experience greater frequency of felt urges to buy. IBT has been conceptualized as a personal trait (Beatty and Ferrell 1998; Park and Lennon 2006), which is constant across various situations (Park and Lennon 2006). As a personal trait, impulse buying tendency can be even enhanced in television shopping context because merchandise on television shopping channels is more accessible than in

the traditional retailing stores (Park and Lennon 2006). Thus, even in the television shopping context, we believe there will be a positive relationship between impulse buying tendency (IBT) and buying urge. Therefore, we offer the following hypothesis: H6: Impulse buying tendency has a positive effect on buying urge.

2.4 Situational Variables

Situational variables include two time variables and one money variable. The first type of time variables is time for television viewing. It is usually discussed with television shopping. The other time variable is the time available for going out shopping. Money variable describes that the available income individuals have can be used to spend in daily life.

2.4.1 Time Variables

In previous studies, there are two types of time to be examined in television shopping context. One is the available time of television viewing (Grant et al. 1991; Li 2004; Mafé and Blas 2007; Skumanich and Kintsfather 1998), and the other is about the available time for shopping (Cook 2000; Eastlick and Liu 1997; Stephens et al. 1996). Both opinions will be discussed in this study.

Time Available for Television Viewing

Time available for television viewing is the time individuals can spend on watching television. This variable has been viewed as a significant predictor of television shopping exposure. Most television shopping exposure occurs when viewers flip the television channels (Park and Lennon 2006). Hence, when people watch more television, they will have more opportunities to flip the television shopping channels (Grant et al. 1991; Li 2004; Mafé and Blas 2007; Skumanich and Kintsfather 1998). Thus, we expect that when individuals have more available time for watching television, they will have the higher level of television shopping exposure. Therefore, we offer the following hypothesis: H7: Time available for television viewing has a positive effect on television shopping

exposure. Time Available for Going Out Shopping

Saving time is viewed as one of major benefits of in-home shopping, which can save

the time of transportation and in-store search; it can serve as a feasible shopping channel for people who are highly pressed for time, especially working women and those with young children (Darian 1987; Gillett 1976). Being a kind of in-home shopping, television shopping provides shoppers with 24/7 order service that makes the merchandise more accessible (Eastlick and Liu 1997; McDonald 1995; Park and Lennon 2006; Stephens et al. 1996), and enhances the benefit of time saving (Eastlick and Liu 1997). People with less time for going out shopping may be more likely to browse the television shopping channels to search products because it allows them to shop efficiently (Cook 2000; Li 2004). Thus, it is reasonable to expect that there is a negative relationship between time available for going out shopping and television shopping via television shopping exposure. Therefore, we propose that:

H8: Time available time for going out shopping has a negative effect on television

shopping exposure.

2.4.2 Money Available

Money available is the amount of extra money or disposal income an individual has in daily life. Darian (1987) suggested that shoppers from families with higher income would be more likely to make purchases via in-home shopping network. Grant et al. (1991) found that income was a significant predictor of television shopping buying frequency. Money available is expected to cause a direct effect on television shopping rather than with television shopping exposure or buying urge because it is viewed as a facilitator for buying from television shopping programs in this study. Thus, we expect that there will be a positive relationship between money available and frequency of patronizing television shopping. Therefore, this idea produces the following hypothesis: H9: Money available has a positive effect on television shopping.

2.5 Stimulating Variables

To manifest the unique characteristics of television shopping, three stimulating variables are included to discuss. The first one is promotional stimuli exposure. Its influence comes from that promotion skills are employed popularly in the television shopping environment. The other is the attraction of program host and celebrity guest, which should play important roles in understanding television shopping buying behaviors.

2.5.1 Promotional Stimuli Exposure

Sales promotions are employed popularly in the television shopping environment. Television shopping programs usually add a sale sign (e.g., on sale, discount, and special sale etc.) on the TV screen to show their bargain price on the offered product (Cook 2000). Naylor, Raghunathan, and Ramanathan (2006) showed that exposure to promotional stimuli will evoke a positive affective response, and the positive affective reactions may transfer to the promoted product. The mechanism under the influence of exposure to promotional stimuli is because consumers tend to repeatedly associate promotional stimuli with positive outcome such as monetary saving or the perception of oneself as a “smart shopper” (Chandon et al. 2000; Inman et al. 1990), and hence positive affective responses will be conditioned by the stimuli. Thus, we expect that promotional stimuli of television shopping programs may make viewers feel an urge to buy something indirectly via the positive affect.

Rook (1987) suggested that the sudden urge to buy is also usually triggered by promotional stimuli. Both physical and temporal proximity with a promotional incentive can stimulate the urge to buy (Dholakia 2000). On television shopping channels, temporal proximity is usually repeatedly stressed via on-screen countdowns of the number of remaining items or the time remaining for ordering (Grant et al. 1991; Ridgway and Monika 2005). This situation will prompt consumers to feel urge to buy the item. Thus, it is reasonable to expect that promotional stimuli exposure will cause a positive influence on buying urge. Therefore, we offer the next two hypotheses:

H10a: Promotional stimuli exposure has a positive effect on positive affect. H10b: Promotional stimuli exposure has a positive effect on buying urge.

2.5.2 Attraction of Program Host and Celebrity Guest

Prior research suggested that there are parasocial relationships between the program hosts and television shoppers (Grant et al. 1991; Park and Lennon 2006; Stephens et al. 1996). The parasocial relationships are that viewers feel friendly and intimate with remote ‘personae’ such as program hosts, and they derive from the on-the-air-telephone conversations between hosts and viewers1 (Stephens et al. 1996). Even though the factor

In the United States, the television shopping programs provide shoppers with a call‐in service, but this is not the case in Taiwan.

inducing parasocial relationships lacks in Taiwan, the importance of hosts can not be ignored. Hence, this study will focus on personal attraction of hosts and celebrities rather than parasocial relationships.

The live hosts are usually friendly and neighborly, and they are not as perfect as the super-stars. Due to their faults, viewers feel that they are like real people we see everyday and are more likely to produce intimate and friendly feelings with them (Stephens et al. 1996). Further, a celebrity may be employed to be a co-host to promote products (Ridgway and Monika 2005; Solomon 1994) because an attractive endorser can achieve a high degree of attention and attain good recall from customers (Atkin and Block 1983; Ohanian 1991; Stephens and Hill 1994). In the television shopping context, program hosts and celebrity guests are salespersons. DeShields, Kara, and Kaynak (1996) found that purchase intentions are more favorably influenced by an attractive salesperson. Further, Researchers studying television shopping suggested that the attraction of a program host or celebrity guest is one of the documented reasons why television shoppers are motivated to watch television shopping programs or patronize television shopping (McDonald 1995). Thus, we expect that the attraction of program hosts and celebrity guests will influence consumers’ television shopping exposure level and mood state. Therefore, we suggest:

H11a: Attraction of program host and celebrity guest has a positive effect on television

shopping exposure. H11b: Attraction of program host and celebrity guest has a positive effect on positive

affect.

Chapter3 Methodology

3.1 Research Framework and Hypotheses

Based on the literature review last chapter, this study utilizes Beatty and Ferrell’s Impulse Buying Model to develop a research framework shown in Figure 1. It suggests that exogenous antecedents, including three individual variables (perceived risk, attitude toward television shopping, and impulse buying tendency), three situational variables (money available, time available for television viewing, and time available for going out shopping), and two stimulating variables (promotional stimuli exposure, attraction of program host and celebrity guest), will influence endogenous variables, including television shopping exposure, positive affect, and buying urge, and ultimately, whether or not a television shopping buying behavior happens.

Figure 1 The Proposed Model

Based on discussions in the previous chapter, fourteen hypotheses are presented in Table 3-1:

Table 3 - 1 Research Hypotheses

Hypotheses

H1: Buying urge has a positive effect on television shopping. H2: Television shopping exposure has a positive effect on buying urge. H3a: Positive affect has a positive effect on buying urge.

H3b: Positive affect has a positive effect on television shopping exposure. H4: Perceiver risk has a negative effect on television shopping. H5:

Attitude toward television shopping has a positive effect on television shopping exposure.

H6: Impulse buying tendency has a positive effect on buying urge.

H7: Time available for television viewing has a positive effect on television

shopping exposure. H8: Time available time for going out shopping has a negative effect on television

shopping exposure. H9: Money available has a positive effect on television shopping. H10a: Promotional stimuli exposure has a positive effect on positive affect. H10b: Promotional stimuli exposure has a positive effect on buying urge. H11a: H11b:

Attraction of program host and celebrity guest has a positive effect on television shopping exposure.

Attraction of program host and celebrity guest has a positive effect on positive affect.

3.2 Preliminary Efforts

In order to explore more potential motivations for consumers to patronize television shopping, we conduct in-depth focus group interviews. Fifteen television shoppers who had plentiful television shopping experience were invited to participate in the in-depth interview through the way of snow-ball sampling. Three in-depth interviews were held, and each invited five interviewees to participate in. The first one was held in an interviewee’s (#04) apparel store, and it proceeded for ninety minutes. The other two interviews were held in National Cheng Kung University, and both proceeded for sixty minutes.

The procedure of the in-depth interview is based on the recommendations of Ritchie and Lewis (2003). In all three interviews, one college student acted as the recorder, and a voice recorder was used to record the interview. All interviewees were given 600 NTD as the reword for attending the interview in the end of interviews. The demographic profile of interviewees is presented in Table 3-2.

Table 3 - 2 Demographics of Interviewees

Marital

Number Gender Age

Status

Frequencies

Education Occupation of

Patronage

01 Male 49 MarriedHigh School Self-employed 13 or over 02 Female 53 MarriedHigh School Housewife 4－6 03 Female 53 MarriedCollege Housewife 13 or over

10－12 04 Female 45 MarriedCollege Self-employed

05 Female 52 MarriedCollege Housewife 13 or over 06 Female 44 MarriedHigh School Self-employed 13 or over

4－6 07 Male 31 MarriedGraduate Public Sector

4－6 08 Female 24 Single College Teacher

09 Male 45 MarriedHigh School Employee 7－9 10 Female 31 MarriedHigh School Self-employed 13 or over 11 Female 32 Single College Employee 7－9

4－6 12 Female 24 Single Graduate Student

10－12 13 Female 42 MarriedHigh School Self-employed

10－12 14 Female 20 Single College Student

7－9 15 Male 30 MarriedHigh School Self-employed

3.3 Measurement

Television Shopping

The television shopping items were drawn from Grant et al. (1991) and Eastlick and Liu (1997). The first item used seven-point “never” to “very often” statement. We treated second item as an open-ended question, and the respondents have to fill in their total frequencies of patronizing television shopping. The last item used seven-point “0 NTD” to “10,000 NTD or over”.

Table 3 - 3 Measurement of Television Shopping

Item

Measurement

Prior related literature

Tvs1 How often did you shop from television shopping

programs? Tvs2 How many purchases you had made from

television shopping programs? Tvs3 How much did you pay for these items in average?

Grant et al. (1991)

Eastlick and Liu (1997)

Buying Urge

The purchase urge items were drawn from Beatty and Ferrell (1998). In order to fit the television shopping context, items were modified somewhat. Three items used seven-point agree-disagree statements.

Table 3 - 4 Measurement of Buying Urge

Item Br1 Br2 Br3

Measurement

I usually felt a sudden urge to buy something. I usually saw a number of things I wanted to buy even though I never wanted to buy them. I usually experienced a number of sudden urges to buy things I had not planned to purchase.

Beatty and Ferrell

(1998) Prior related literature

Television Shopping Exposure

The television shopping exposure items were a modification of items from Lee,

Lennon, and Rudd (2000). The first item used seven-point “never” to “very often” statement. The second item used seven-point “less than 10 minutes” to “60 minutes or over”.

Table 3 - 5 Measurement of Television Shopping Exposure

Item Tvse1 Tvse2

Measurement

How often did you watch television shopping channels?

How long did you watch television shopping channels on an average day?

Prior related literature

Lee et al. (2000)

Positive Affect

The positive affect items were directly drawn from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Scale (PANAS) (Watson et al. 1988). The items are stated that “during watching television shopping channels, how much do you feel about this positive feelings?”, and used seven-point “not at all” to “very strong” statements.

Table 3 - 6 Measurement of Positive Affect

Item

Measurement

Prior related literature

Pa1 Enthusiastic Pa2 Interested Pa3 Determined Pa4 Excited Pa5 Inspired Pa6 Alert Pa7 Active Pa8 Strong Pa9 Proud Pa10 Attentive

Watson et al. (1988)

Perceived Risk

The perceived risk items were drawn from Burgess (2003) and Kim and Lennon (2000). Burgess (2003) suggested that there are six types of perceived risks in the television

shopping environment, including overall perceived risk, financial risk, performance risk, functional risk, social risk, and time risk. All items used seven-point agree-disagree statements.

Table 3 - 7 Measurement of Perceived Risk

Variable Item

Pr1

Financial Risk

Pr2 Pr3 Pr4 Pr5 Pr6

Functional Risk

Pr7 Pr8

Measurement

I will find the very same item at the store with a lower price.

I will feel that purchasing from television shopping is a bad way to spend money. Purchasing from television shopping let me think I just threw away a lot of money. There will be something wrong with the product, or it will not function properly. The merchandise will not be durable. I will have a hard time trying to return the item or exchange it.

I will not feel comfortable giving my credit card number when I order.

There will be problems wtih after sales services.

I will feel that shopping from television shopping is perceived as imprudent or socially unacceptable.

Purchasing from television shopping would cause me to be thought of as foolish by some people whose opinion I value.

I will buy from television shopping because many of your friends do.

I will feel that you just wasted time shopping via television.

I ill feel you have to spend a long time waiting for merchandise delivery.

I ill feel that shopping via television shopping can save time.a

Burgess (2003) & Kim and Lennon

(2000) Prior related literature

Performance

Risk

Pr9

Social Risk

Pr10Pr11Pr12

Time Risk Pr13Pr14

Note: a. item was reversed scored.

Attitude toward Television Shopping

Taylor, George, and Michael (2000) studied consumers’ attitude toward telemarketing. The concept of attitude toward television shopping is similar to attitude to telemarketing. Hence, the attitude toward television shopping items were a modification from Taylor et al. (2000), and items used seven-point agree-disagree statements.

Table 3 - 8 Measurement of Attitude toward Television Shopping Item At1 At2

Measurement

Television shopping provides a convenient and good way to buy things.

Television shopping is an offensive way to sell.a

Prior related literature

Taylor et al. (2000)

Note: a. item was reversed scored. Impulse Buying Tendency

The impulse buying tendency items were directly drawn from Rook and Fisher (1995), and items used seven-point agree-disagree statements.

Table 3 - 9 Measurement of Impulse Buying Tendency

Item

Measurement

Prior related literature

Ibt1 I often buy things spontaneously. Ibt2 I often buy things without thinking. Ibt3 “Buy it, think about it later” describes me. Ibt4 “Buying now, think about it later” describes me.

Rook and Fisher (1995)

Time Available for Television Viewing

The time available for television viewing items were a modification of items from Lee et al. (2000). The first item used the seven-point “never” to “very often” statement, and the second item used the seven-point “less than 30 minutes” to “60 minutes or over” statement.

Table 3 - 10 Measurement of Time Available for Television Viewing Item

Measurement

Prior related literature

Lee et al. (2000)

Tv1 How often did you watch TV?

Tv2 How long did you watch TV on an average day?

Time Available for Going Out Shopping

Vermeir and Van Kenhove (2005) proposed a scale to measure perceived time pressure (PTP) in a grocery shopping context. Because time available for going out shopping is related to the concept of perceived time pressure for shopping, the time available for going out shopping items were a modification from Vermeir and Van Kenhove (2005). Items used seven-point agree-disagree statements.

Table 3 - 11 Measurement of Time Available for Going Out Shopping Item Ta1 Ta2 Ta3

Measurement

I have only a limited amount of time available to go out shopping.a

I am in a hurry when go out shopping.a

I try to finish my shopping as quickly as possible because I have other things to do.a

Vermeir and Van Kenhove (2005) Prior related literature

Note: a. item was reversed scored. Money Available

The money available was measured by personal monthly disposable income. The items used a seven-point statement, and the choice is from “less than 5,000 NTD” to “50,000 NTD or over”.

Promotional Stimuli Eexposure

Promotional stimuli in the television shopping environment has been discussed, especially the strategy of restricted offers, but previous studies did not propose an appropriate scale to measure promotional stimuli exposure. Hence, we propose an initial scale to measure promotional stimuli exposure through the results of in-depth interviews. Three items are developed, and used seven-point agree-disagree statements.

Table 3 - 12 Measurement of Promotional Stimuli Exposure

Item

Measurement

Prior related literature

Pse1 Products restrictedly offered on television

shopping channels attract my attention. Pse2 The on-screen countdown of the number of

remaining items for ordering makes me experience time pressure about purchasing. Pse3 The on-screen countdown of the time remaining

for ordering makes me experience time pressure about purchasing.

Attraction of Program Host and Celebrity Guest

Aheame, Gruen, and Jarvis (1999) suggested that the personal attraction of a salesperson could be measured by five attributes, including physical attractiveness, likeability, trustworthiness, communication ability, and expertise. In the television shopping environment, program hosts and celebrity guests are salespersons, and hence the attraction of host and celebrity items were a modification from Aheame et al.. The construct of communication ability will be excluded from this study because there are no direct interaction between salespeople and consumers in the television shopping context. All items used seven-point agree-disagree statements.

Table 3 - 13 Measurement of Attraction of Host Program and Celebrity Guest Variable Item

Ah1

Physical Attractiveness

Ah2 Ah3

Measurement

Prior related literature

The host/celebrity is very good-looking.

The host/celebrity has an attractive appearance.

The host/celebrity would generally be thought of as beautiful/handsome.

Ah4 The host/celebrity is easy to like.

Likeability

Ah5 Ah6 Ah7

Trustworthiness Ah8

Ah9

The host/celebrity is a fun person to be around.

The host/celebrity is a very nice person.

The host/celebrity is always honest in his/her dealings with me.

The host/celebrity is someone I feel I can trust.

The host/celebrity never tries to mislead me.

Ahearne et al. (1999)

The host/celebrity is an excellent

Ah10 source of information about the

products s/he represents.

Expertise

The host/celebrity is able to

Ah11 recommend new treatment regimens

for dealing with difficult cases. The host is knowledgeable about

Ah12 his/her products negative side effects

and how they can be alleviated.

3.4 Pretest

The questionnaire was pretested on one convenience sample of 35 people with 27 television shoppers who ever patronized television shopping. One purpose of pretest was to identify potential problems with wording, instructions, and questionnaire format. Further, traditional scale development procedures, including exploratory factor analysis, coefficient

alphas, and item-to-total correlations, were adopted to delete items that did not enough contribute to the reliability and validity of the proposed scales. After the items deletion based on the pretest, items remained used in the questionnaire survey are presented in Table 3-14.

Table 3-14 Final Items of the Questionnaire

Construct Item

TVS1

Television Shopping

TVS3

Measurement

How often did you shop from television shopping programs?

How many purchases you had made from television shopping programs?

TVS2 How much did you pay for these items in average? BR2

When browsing television shopping channels, I usually felt a sudden urge to buy something.

When watching television shopping channels, I usually experienced a number of sudden urges to buy things I had not planned to purchase

When watching television shopping channels, I usually saw a number of things I wanted to buy even though I never wanted to buy them.

Buying Urge

BR1

BR3

Television Shopping Exposure

TVSE2How often did you watch television shopping channels? TVSE1

How long did you watch television shopping channels on an average day?

PA1 Enthusiastic PA2 Interested

Positive Affect

PA4 Proud PA9 Excited PA10 Attentive PA5 Inspired

Note: a. item was reversed scored.

Table 3-14 Final Items of the Questionnaire (Cont.)

Construct Item

Measurement

PR10 Purchasing from television shopping let me think I just threw

away a lot of money. PR3 PR2 PR9 PR5 PR4 PR7 PR6

Attitude toward Television Shopping Impulse Buying Tendency Time Available for Television Viewing Time Available for Going Out Shopping

AT1 AT2 IBT2 IBT3 IBT1 TV1 TV2 TA1 TA2

Purchasing from television shopping would cause me to be thought of as foolish by some people whose opinion I value. Purchasing from television shopping is a bad way to spend money.

Purchasing from television shopping is perceived as imprudent or socially unacceptable.

There will be something wrong with the product, or it will not function properly.

The merchandise will not be durable.

I will feel comfortable giving my credit card number when I order.

There will be problems with after-sales services.

Television shopping provides a convenient and good way to buy things.

Television shopping is an offensive way to sell.a I often buy things spontaneously. I often buy things without thinking. “Buy it, think about it later” describes me. How often did you watch TV?

How long did you watch TV on an average day? I have only a limited amount of time available to go out shopping.a

I am in a hurry when go out shopping.a

Perceived Risk

Note: a. item was reversed scored.

Table 3-14 Final Items of the Questionnaire (Cont.)

Construct Item

PSE3

Promotional Stimuli Exposure

Measurement

Products restrictedly offered on television shopping channels attract my attention.

The on-screen countdown of the number of remaining items

PSE2 for ordering makes me experience time pressure about

purchasing. PSE1 AH10AH11AH3

The on-screen countdown of the time remaining for ordering makes me experience time pressure about purchasing. The program host is an excellent source of information about the products s/he represents.

The program host is able to recommend new treatment regimens for dealing with difficult cases.

The program host would generally be thought of as beautiful/handsome.

The program host is a fun person to be around. The program host is easy to like.

The celebrity guest has an attractive appearance. The celebrity guest is a fun person to be around. The celebrity guest is easy to like.

The celebrity guest is someone I feel I can trust. The celebrity guest never tries to mislead me.

Attraction of Program Host and Celebrity Guest

AH5 AH4 AC5 AC4 AC2 AC9 AC8

Note: a. item was reversed scored.

Chapter 4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Data Collection and Sample

The data came from a questionnaire survey at a local regional shopping mall. Each data collector staid at one location, and approached every third passerby to ask whether he or she would complete the questionnaire. The respondents who completed the questionnaire would be given a fan as the present. The author acted as the supervisor and six college students acted as data collectors.

The data collection process proceeded over one weekend during the month of April. During the two days of data collection, 312 questionnaires were obtained. Eliminating invalided questionnaires with uncompleted items, logic errors2 or improper respondents3, resulted in a final sample of 262 with 216 television shoppers. The demographic profile of the sample is presented in Table 4-1.

4.2 Results

In this section, we will discuss the statistical results by analyzing the data drawn from a questionnaire survey.

4.2.1 Reliability Test

To verify the reliability of constructs of this study, item-to-total correlation, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha, and construct reliability are used to measure. The value of item-to-total is used to measure the internal consistency of each identified construct. The construct reliability, as calculated with AMOS estimates, is analogous to coefficient alpha and is calculated by Fornell and Larcker (1981). In general, the tolerance value of item-to-total is above 0.5, and the tolerance values of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha and construct reliability are above 0.7. For each research construct, item-to-total correlation, Cronbach’s coefficients alpha, and construct are assessed to identify the internal consistency and reliability of the construct. The results are presented in Table 4-2. All

For example, the item “How often did you shop from television shopping programs?” was filled in “often”, but the item “How many purchases you had made from television shopping programs?” was filled in “once”. 3

Improper respondents are those filling “never” in the item “How often did you watch television shopping channels?”.

cronbach’s coefficients alphas and construct reliabilities are above 0.7 with the exception of attitude toward television shopping.

Table 4 - 1 Demographics of the Sample

Characteristic Frequency Percentage

Gender Male Female Age

Less than 18 19－29 30－39 40－49 50 or over

861767187451112197652151621103312042132383243149520738450301546

32.867.2

2.7 71.4 17.2 4.2 4.6

75.224.882.16.18.03.81.111.877.98.01.1

Marital Status Single

Married

Children 0

1 2 3

Education Less than Junior High School

Senior High School Some College College Graduate Post Graduate Occupation Military, Public Sector, or Teacher Industrial, Commercial, or Service Industry

Self-employed Retired Housewife Student Others

Disposable Income Less than 5,000 (NTD/monthly) 5,001－10,000

10,001－20,000 20,001－30,000 30,001－40,000 40,001－50,000 50,000 or over

8.8 31.7

9.21.15.336.37.6

27.9 32.1 19.1 11.5 5.7 1.5 2.3

Table 4 - 2 Reliability Analysis

Correlated

Construct Item

Item-to-Total

Standardized

α Construct Reliability

Television Shopping

Buying Urge

Television Shopping

Exposure

Positive Affect

Perceived Risk

Attitude toward Television ShoppingImpulse Buying Tendency Time Available for TV Viewing

.73 .75

Tvs1 .58 Tvs3 .41 Tvs2 .47 .73 .75 Br2 .65 Br1 .54 Br3 .51 .75 .76 Tvse2 .60

Tvse1 .60 .84 .81 Pa1 .70 Pa2 .69 Pa4 .65

Pa9 .60 Pa10 .58 Pa5 .52 Financial & Social

.84 .84

Risk

Pr10 .74 Pr3 .69

Pr2 .66 Pr9 .57 Performance Risk .89 .89

Pr5 .80

Pr4 .80 Functional Risk .68 .74

Pr7 .51

Pr6 .51 .64 .63 At1 .47 At2 .47 .88 .89 Ibt2 .84 Ibt3 .76 Ibt1 .72 .75 .76 Tv1 .60 Tv2 .56

Table 4 - 2 Reliability Analysis (Cont.)

Correlated Construct Item

Item-to-TotalTime Available for

Going Out Shopping Promotional Stimuli

Exposure

Standardized

Construct Reliability

Attraction of Program Host and Celebrity Guest

.78 .79 Ta1 .64 Ta2 .64 .90 .90 Pse3 .86 Pse2 .85 Pse1 .69

Expertise .82 .85 Ah10 .70 Ah11 .70

Likeability . 78 .78 Ah3 .55 Ah5 .68 Ah4 .64

Likeability .83 .83 Ac5 .72. Ac4 73 Ac2 .63

Trustworthiness .82 .83

Ac9 .70 Ac8 .70

4.2.2 Validity Test

Construct validity is assessed through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to discuss convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the proposed scales. Convergent validity is assessed by the significance of the standardized loading (λij) (Anderson and Gerbing 1988), which is presented at Table 4-3. A good convergent validity is suggested that the value should be above 0.7.

null hypothesis is rejected. That means the two constructs are not perfectly correlated, and the discriminant validity is established. The result of testing discriminant validity is presented in Table 4-4. Discriminant validity is established on all of pairs of constructs. That is, the chi-square difference between the unconstrained model and the constrained model of each pair exceeds χ21, 0.05=3.84.

Table 4 - 3 Validity Analysis

Standardized Variable Item Loading

C.R. (t-value)

TVS1 .89 12.04

TVS3 .57 8.50Television Shopping

TVS2 .63 b

BR2 .62 9.23

BR1 .89 12.13Buying Urge

BR3 .58 b

TVSE2 .88 8.33Television Shopping

Exposure TVSE1 .69 b

PA1 .71 8.47

PA2 .52 b

PA4 .73 10.00

Positive Affect

PA9 .78 10.63

PA10 .59 7.74

PA5 .54 7.03Social & Financial Risk

PR10 .86 14.46

PR3 .80 16.06

PR2 .72 12.70

PR9 .62 b

Perceived Risk Performance Risk

PR5 .86 b

PR4 .92 16.61Functional Risk

PR7 .53 b

PR6 .96 11.91

AT1 .66 5.612Attitude toward

Television Shopping AT2 .56 b

IBT2 .76 13.89

Impulse Buying

IBT3 .95 19.01

Tendency

IBT1 .82 b

TV1 .67 8.27

Television Viewing

TV2 .89 b

Note: a. item was reversed scored.

b. the parameter compared by others s set as 1, therefore there is no C.R.

Table 4 - 3 Validity Analysis (Cont.)

Standardized Variable Item Loading

C.R. (t-value)

8.692Time Available for Going TA1a .73

Out Shopping TA2a .87 b

PSE3 .71 12.89

Promotional Stimuli

PSE2 .93 18.93

Exposure

PSE1 .95 b

Expertise of Host AH10 .99 b

AH11 .71 10.75

Likeability of Host

AH3 .56 b

AH5 .72 8.42

AH4 .90 9.19

Attraction of Host and

Likeability of Celebrity

Celebrity

AC5 .69 b

AC4 .80 11.30

AC2 .88 11.76Trustworthiness of

Celebrity

AC9 .91 11.55

AC8 .77 b

Note: a. item was reversed scored.

b. the parameter compared by others s set as 1, therefore there is no C.R.

Further, discriminant validity was assessed fro two estimated constructs by constraining the estimated correlation parameter (ψij) between them to 1.0 and then performing a chi-square difference test on the values obtained for the constrained and unconstrained models (Anderson and Gerbing 1988). \"A significantly lower χ2 value for the model in which the trait correlations are not constrained to unity would indicate that the traits are not perfectly correlated and that discriminant validity is achieved.\" (Bagozzi & Phillips, 1982, p. 476) When the chi-square difference (△χ2) is more than χ21, 0.05=3.84, null hypothesis is rejected. That means the two constructs are not perfectly correlated, and the discriminant validity is established. The result of testing discriminant validity is presented in Table 4-4. Discriminant validity is established on all of pairs of constructs. That is, the chi-square difference between the unconstrained model and the constrained model of each pair exceeds χ21, 0.05=3.84.

Table 4 - 4 Discriminant Validity Analysis

01 Television Shopping 02 Buying Urge

03 Television Shopping Exposure 04 Positive Affect 05 Perceived Risk

06 Attitude toward Television Shopping 07 Impulse Buying Tendency 08 Time for Television Viewing 09 Time for Going Out Shopping 10 Promotional Stimuli Exposure 11 Attraction of Host and Celebrity

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 -- 6.27167.652.9536.7756.34224.175.30113.206.21432.317.773183.065.78107.043.45142.0113.26187.533.3359.68

-- 12.9593.8866.51193.759.87227.9118.1644.8324.66125.8910.83118.634.51127.1436.69123.9311.8967.55

-- 50.29150.8510.40121.290.6621.7931.45108.819.1549.070.76117.918.71113.631.5957.58

-- 62.63 170.80 64.85 96.57 58.73 237.78 44.72 159.72 46.11 179.21 85.39 407.85 55.49 101.55

-- 39.5649.699.26122.126.98119.707.75145.629.16120.506.5362.44

0.89

37.960.059.81

28.60122.160.291.190.21

36.81129.29114.917.5118.6310.744.40

31.65428.57122.39139.910.091.942.002.3855.05

19.0857.9455.8258.4058.46

Note: The upper value is chi-square of unconstrained model. The lower value is chi-square of constrained model.

4.2.3 Structural Equation Model

Model Fit Test

Before evaluating the structural models, the overall fit of the model should be evaluated. Four indices are used to test the fit of the model. The first one is the chi-square test, the essential for the nested model comparison. The other fit indices include the goodness of fit index (GFI), the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). GFI and AGFI are not influenced by the sample size definitely and they are used to test how much better the model. A very good fit of research model would require GFI and AGFI to be higher than 0.9. The smaller the RMSEA is, the better the fit of the model. A value of 0.05 is suggested as a close fit.

Figure 2 presents the final structural equation model with the path coefficients and the associated t-values, and Table 4-6 and Table 4-7 show the results of all hypothesized and model fit indices. All hypothesized paths are statistically significant and in the direction predicted with the exception of the effect of attraction of program host and celebrity guest on television shopping exposure. Overall model fit statistics show that the model fits the data within established guidelines: χ2420=766.31; GFI=0.85; AGFI=0.81; RMSEA=0.05.

Table 4 - 5 Model Fit Indices

Indices Value Suggested Value Chi-Square (CMIN)

p-value

Degree of Freedom (DF)

CMIN/DF GFI AGFI RMSEA

766.31 0.00 420 1.83 0.85 0.81 0.05

-- More than 0.05

-- Less than 3.00 More than 0.9 More than 0.9 Less than 0.05

Figure 2 The Final Model

Note: the value in parentheses represents the t-value of the hypothesized paths *: p-value < 0.05; **: p-value < 0.01; p-value < 0.001

Table 4 - 6 Results of Final Structural Equation Model

Hypotheses Paths H1 Buying Urge Æ Television Shopping H2

Television Shopping Exposure Æ

Buying Urge

Standardized Coefficients

t-value Results

0.35 4.68*** Support0.24 3.44*** Support0.15 2.34* Support0.19 2.72** Support-0.18 -2.46* Support0.19 2.35* Support0.40 6.33*** Support0.62 6.59*** Support-0.17 -2.47* Support0.21 3.37*** Support0.43 6.23*** Support0.17 2.32* SupportNot 0.35 4.16***

Support-0.05 -.048 Support

H3a Positive Affect Æ Buying Urge H3b

Positive Affect Æ Television Shopping

Exposure

H4 Perceived Risk Æ Television Shopping H5 H6 H7 H8 H9 H10a H10b H11a H11b

Attitude toward Television Shopping Æ

Television Shopping Exposure Impulse Buying Tendency Æ Buying Urge

Time Available for Television Viewing Æ Television Shopping Exposure Time Available for Going Out Shopping Æ Television Shopping Exposure Money Available Æ Television Shopping

Promotional Stimuli Exposure Æ Buying Urge

Promotional Stimuli Exposure Æ Positive Affect

Attraction of Host and Celebrity Æ Television Shopping Exposure Attraction of Host and Celebrity Æ Positive Affect

Note: * represents that the coefficient is significant at 0.05 or above.

** represents that the coefficient is significant at 0.01 or above. *** represents that the coefficient is significant at 0.001 or above.

Hypothesis Test

There are four paths hypothesized among the endogenous variables in the proposed model, and all of these paths are predicted to be positive. The statistical results indicate that all of these paths were in the expected direction. As supposed, television shopping exposure increases the buying urge (H2: β=0.24; t-value=3.44), as does the positive affect (H3a: β=0.15; t-value=2.34). Positive affect is predicted to positively affect television shopping exposure (H3b), and this hypothesized path is supported with γ=0.19 (t-value=2.72). And, as expected, buying urge significantly affects television shopping buying behaviors (H1: β=0.35; t-value=4.68).

Further, statistical results regarding the hypothesized paths of the exogenous variables will be discussed. Perceived risk was predicted to decrease television shopping buying behaviors, and this hypothesized path is supported with the statistical result (H4: -0.18; t-value -2.46). Next, attitude toward television shopping was supposed to increase an individual’s television shopping exposure, and this path is supported with the statistical result (H5: γ=0.19; t-value=2.35). As expected, an individual’s tendency of impulse tendency significantly has a positive effect on buying urge (H6: γ=0.40; t-value=6.33). An accordance with the past research, the level of television viewing has a positive relationship with television shopping exposure (H7: γ=0.62; t-value=6.59). Time available for going out shopping is hypothesized to affect television shopping exposure, and the influence is hypothesized to be negative. As expected, time available for going out shopping does have a negative and significant effect on television shopping exposure (H8: γ=-0.17; t-value=-2.47). An individual’s available money is predicted to have a direct effect on television shopping buying behaviors. As expected, available money has a significant effect on television shopping buying behaviors (H9: γ=0.21; t-value=3.37).

Promotional stimuli exposure is hypothesized to increase both buying urge (H10a) and positive affect (H10b). As expected, both direct effects are positive and significant; the path from promotional stimuli exposure to buying urge is γ=0.43 (t-value=6.23) and from promotional stimuli exposure to positive affect, the path is γ=0.17 (t-value=2.32). The final exogenous variable, the attraction of host and celebrity, is hypothesized to increase both television shopping exposure (H11a) and positive affect (H11b). Both direct effects are positive; the path from attraction of program host and celebrity to positive affect is γ=0.35 (t-value=4.16) while that from attraction of host and celebrity to

television shopping exposure (γ=-0.05) does not have a significant t-value (-0.48) associated with it. Thus, the data support H11b, but not H11a.

4.2.4 The Rivial Model

Bagozzi and Yi (1988) suggested that researchers should not only test the performance of the hypotheisized model but also compare the rival model. In discussing the construct of buying urge previously, we provided a theoretical basis for positioning buying urge as the final mediating variable in this study. The other two endogenous antecedents, television shopping exposure and positive affect, indirectly influence televisino shopping through buying urge. However, prior literature about television shopping suggested that television shopping has a direct relationship with television shopping. It is worthy to discuss that whether buying urge is suitable to be the final mediating variable or not. The tested rival model (see Figure 3) therefore permits all three endengous variables to directly influence television shopping, implying that buying urge is not allowed to mediate other endogenous variables.

On the basis of Beatty and Ferrell (1998), we compare our hypothesized model with the rivial model based on overall fit and percentage of either model’s parameters that are statistically significant. The comparison between the hypothesized model and the rival model is presented in Table 4-7. With repect to overall fit, the GFI and AGFI are slightly lower than that of the hypothesized model (0.84 and 0.80 versus 0.85 and 0.81), and the RMSEA is slightly higher than that of the hypothesized model (0.06 versus 0.05). Besides, the rival model’s mean ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom is slightly lower than that of the hypothesized model (1.80 versus 1.83). Most of model fit indices (GFI, AFGI and RMSEA) of the hypothesized model are better than thos of the rival model, and the hypothesized model is only worse than the rival model on the mean ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom. Further, only 67% of the paths in the rival model are significant as opposed to 93% in the hypothesized model, which suggest that the extra paths are not meaningful theoretically or empirically. Bsed on these findings, we believe that the exercise of fitting a rival model can strengthen the support the meaningfulness of the hypothesized model in this study.

Figure 3 The Rival Model

Note: the value in parentheses represents the t-value of the hypothesized paths *: p-value < 0.05; **: p-value < 0.01; p-value < 0.001

Table 4 - 7 Comparison between Hypothesized Model and Rival Model Indices Chi-Square (CMIN) Degree of Freedom (DF)

Hypothesized Model

766.31 420

Rival Model 814.32 453

1.80

CMIN/DF 1.83

GFI 0.85 0.84 AGFI 0.81 0.80 RMSEA 0.05 0.06

Percentage of Significant

Parameters

93% 67%

4.3 Discussion

4.3.1 Discussion of Specific Findings

Television Shopping

Results indicate that television shopping is significantly influenced by buying urge, money available, and perceived risk. As the Table 4-8 shows, buying urge has the biggest effect on television shopping. As we expected, individuals having more buying urges will patronize television shopping more frequencies. Also, money available has a second effect on television shopping. As we discuss earlier, individuals having more available money to spend will patronize television shopping more frequencies.

On the other hand, perceived risk has a negative effect on television shopping. As we supposed, people with higher perceived risk on television shopping will patronize television shopping less frequencies; vice versa, people with lower perceived risk on television shopping will patronize television shopping more frequencies.

Table 4 - 8 Total Effects of Variables on Television Shopping

Television Shopping

Variables Buying Urge Money Available Perceived Risk

Buying Urge

Results indicate that buying urge is significantly influenced by television shopping

Direct Effect

0.35 0.21 -0.18

Indirect Effect

0.00 0.00 0.00

Total Effect

0.35 0.21 -0.18

exposure, positive affect, impulse buying tendency, and promotional stimuli exposure. As table 4-9 shows, promotional stimuli exposure has the biggest effect on buying urge. As we expected, individuals exposed to more promotional stimuli will have more buying urges. Especially, the restricted promotion can often attract shoppers’ attentions.

Impulse buying tendency has the second effect on buying urge. People with tendency to engage in impulse purchase would have buying urge during watching television shopping programs. Television shopping exposure has the third influence on buying urge. This coincides with the literature (Beatty and Ferrell 1998; Rook 1987), when consumers browse longer, they would recognize for products needed.

Positive affect also influences buying urge. Obviously, when watching television shopping programs, consumers may be stimulated by the elements of television shopping and tend to have a good mood state; in turn, feel buying urge and make consumption.

Table 4 - 9 Total Effects of Variables on Buying Burge

Buying Urge

Variables

Television Shopping Exposure

Positive Affect

Direct Effect

0.24

Indirect Effect

0.00

Total Effect

0.24

0.15 0.05 0.20

Impulse Buying Tendency 0.40 0.00 0.40 Promotional Stimuli Exposure

0.43

0.03

0.46

Television Shopping Exposure

Television shopping exposure is positively affected by time available for television

viewing, positive affect and attitude toward television shopping, on the other hand, is negatively affected by time available for going out shopping. Table 4-10 shows that time available for television viewing has the most significant effect on television shopping exposure. It coincides with prior literature (Grant et al. 1991; Li 2004; Mafé and Blas 2007; Skumanich and Kintsfather 1998).

Positive affect and attitude toward television shopping also have the positive effect on

television shopping exposure. From this result, we can learn when consumers have good image on television shopping or from this result or when they feel good in the television shopping context, they will watch more television shopping programs.

We suppose that people with limited time to go out shopping, they would be more

likely to watch television shopping programs to search desirable products and complete the needs of shopping. Obviously, television shopping has the potential to become a substitute shopping channel for people who can not go out shopping or who are lazy in going out.

Although attraction of program host and celebrity guest fails to directly influence

television shopping exposure, it can cause an indirect effect television shopping exposure through positive. We discuss these relationships in the findings of in-depth interviews.

Table 4 - 10 Total Effects of Variables on Television Shopping Exposure

Television Shopping Exposure

Variables Positive Affect Attitude toward Television

Shopping Time Available for Television

Viewing Time Available for Going Out

Shopping Attraction of Program Host and Celebrity Guest

Direct Effect

0.19

Indirect Effect

0.00

Total Effect

0.19 0.19 0.62 -0.17

0.19 0.00 0.62 0.00 -0.17 0.00

0.00 0.05 0.05

Positive Affect

Table 4-11 shows that attraction of host and celebrity has the most significant effect on positive affect, and promotional stimuli exposure has the second influence. Besides, the comment of interviewee #09 also indicates the importance of a celebrity guest, she says:

Although attraction of host and celebrity is found only having direct effect on positive affect, its importance should not be ignored.

Promotional stimuli exposure also increases positive affect. The influence of promotional stimuli exposure comes from that consumers tend to associate promotions with positive outcomes, such as smarter shoppers (Chandon et al. 2000; Inman et al. 1990).

Table 4 - 11 Total Effects of Variables on Positive Affect

Positive Affect

Variables

Promotional Stimuli Exposure Attraction of Program Host and Celebrity Guest

Direct Effect

0.17

Indirect Effect

0.00

Total Effect

0.17 0.35

0.35 0.00

4.3.2 Discussion of In-depth Interviews

In this section, we will discuss the linkage between the findings of in-depth interviews and the hypothesized model of this study, besides we also show other effects on television shopping buying behaviors not discussed previously. Television Shopping

Statistical results show that consumers’ television shopping buying behaviors are directly influenced by buying urge, money available, and perceived risk. Buying urge, which was positioned as the final mediating variable, preceded the actual buying behavior. That is to say, when an individual feels the buying urge on the displayed merchandise, he or she may make a purchase next. The in-depth interviews reveal the relationship between buying urge and television shopping.

For example, interviewee #15 says:

One night, I see there is a mobile phone with a special promotion and the item is limit

quantity offered. I control my purchase impulse all the night, but I can not stand next morning. I make a phone call to order the item. And interviewee #04 says:

I ever buy a run machine. Some models are employed to demonstrate the product. I desire to exercise at home as they do and I think become slender if I have the item. However, I less exercise the run machine afterward, and I know the shop is another impulse purchase.

Furthermore, an individual’s perceived risk on television shopping may discourage he or she to patronize. In the television shopping environment, there are six kinds of perceived risk including financial risk, social risk, performance risk, functional risk, time risk, and overall risk. From in-depth interviews, we can find that the effect of social risk and functional risk is more obvious. For example, interviewees #06 and #15 both express that their family do not like they buy from the television shopping programs, and they would patronize television shopping less frequency.

Interviewee #06 says:

My husband doesn’t like me to shop from television shopping programs because he always thinks television shopping operators are dishonest and the products must not work well as the hosts demonstrate. So, I buy less now, and if I’d like to buy someone, I usually buy stealthily. And interviewee (#15) says:

My wife sometimes stops me watching television shopping programs because she knows I can not control my purchase impulse.

Obviously, their television shopping buying behaviors are both affected by social risk. Besides, functional risk seems to be another obstacle for television shopping. Recently, the frauds happen frequently in Taiwan, and some cases involve television shopping. Hence, many consumers stop buying or buy less from television shopping programs. Interviewees #02, #04, #12, and #14 all express they are afraid that television shopping operators can not keep their personal information safe, and have misgiving about patronizing television shopping. Buying Urge

Statistical results show that buying urge is directly influenced by promotional stimuli

exposure, impulse buying tendency, television shopping exposure, and positive affect. When an individual is exposed to more promotional stimuli, he or she may be more likely to be stimulated and feel buying urge. Two interviewees (#09 and #15) were ever attracted by the restricted promotion. The buying urge comes out when they see a nice product on a restricted promotion.

As interviewee #09 says:

Once, I see an electric toothbrush on a special promotion and only few quantities for ordering. The price is good, and there are some additional presents, too. Originally, I’d like to buy an electric toothbrush. Hence, when I see it, I desire to buy it. Actually, I am still a little bit hesitant at the beginning, but when the quantities showed on the TV screen for ordering decreases gradually, I can not control my buying desire and make a phone call to order it.

Further, when an individual has impulse buying tendency, he or she is more likely to

feel buying urge. In the fifteen interviewees, we find interviewee #01 and #15 have the tendency of impulse buying. Not only in the television shopping environment, they also make a lot of impulse buying in the traditional shopping environment. Interviewee #01 says:

In general, when I see something good or I like, I would feel high buying desire and I usually buy it without more deliberation.

When I see nice merchandise on the television shopping programs, I usually can not resist the temptation. And interviewee #15 says:

I enjoy shopping. I must buy something when go window-shopping because I will feel depressed if I do not buy anything. I often buy something that I never use. I ever buy a pair of shoes and I never tear down its package. I would tell myself why I buy this. Whenever there is a nice mobile phone displayed on the television shopping programs, I would want to buy it.

Besides, an individual level of television shopping exposure also contributes to buying urge and the following buying behavior. When an individual watches more television shopping programs, he or she is more likely to be stimulated by the displayed merchandise and feels more buying urge. Many interviewees have the habit of watching television shopping programs, and they usually feel a buying desire or urge during exposed

to the programs and make a purchase.

As interviewee #01 says:

Most of my purchases usually happen after watching television shopping channels for a period of time. I usually flick the TV to the shopping channels and look around what products are sold. Usually, I am apt to have buying urges because the products presented by the host are always seems to be nice and miraculous. After experiencing the exciting feelings, I order the items.

Positive affect also influences buying urge. When an individual is in a good mood state, he or she is more likely to feel buying desire or urge.

Interviewee #05 says:

I ever desired to buy a jewel. The music, lamplight and the scene create a noble atmosphere, and this let me think I am a beautiful woman if I wear the jewel. Television Shopping Exposure

Television shopping exposure is positively affected by time available for television

viewing, positive affect and attitude toward television shopping, on the other hand, is negatively affected by time available for going out shopping. In prior literature (Grant et al. 1991; Li 2004; Mafé and Blas 2007; Skumanich and Kintsfather 1998), the factors influencing the level of television shopping exposure are focused on television viewing. The influence of television viewing comes from that an individual is more likely to flick through the television shopping channels when he or she watches television more. We can find that the interviewees who have more time for watching television would watch more television shopping programs.

For example, interviewee #03 says:

One of my major recreational activities is watching TV, and I usually flick through television shopping channels. And, interviewee #07 says:

My wife and I usually watch television at night and sometimes flick through the television shopping channels. We usually discuss whether buying the products we are interested.

Compared to prior research, we propose several additional variables which may also influence the level of television shopping exposure. Statistical results show that attitude

toward television shopping has the positive effect on television shopping exposure. When consumers have positive attitude toward television shopping, they would watch more television shopping programs. The results of in-depth interviewees show that the influence of attitude toward television shopping on television shopping exposure is also significant. Interviewees have positive attitude toward television shopping, due to the convenience or the informative resource, they are more willing to watch television shopping programs. However, some interviewees have negative attitude toward television shopping due to the past bad consumption experience. And this bad image makes them watch television shopping programs less and less.

As interviewee #01 says:

I love buying consumer electric products, so I often watch the channels which focuses on consumer electric products. I can learn newest and rich information from television shopping programs because hosts introduce characteristics of the products and show how to use them. Interviewee #08 says:

I think television shopping is very convenience. I can shop in home. This is important to me because I am usually lazy to go out for shopping and I can satisfy my buying desire at any time.

On the other hand, interviewee #02 says:

I sometimes watch television shopping programs before, but now I watch less because the shopping experiences are not good. The quality and performance of products are not good as the host introduce.

Further, we suppose that people with limited time to go out shopping, they would be more likely to watch television shopping programs to search desirable products and complete the needs of shopping.

For example, interviewee #06 says:

When I get off duty and go home at night, I can still buy something I need via the television shopping network. I am not limited to operating time of physical stores, and I can shop easily by making a phone call. And, interviewee #11 says:

I don’t have much time for going out shopping because of work, and I choose to shop via the television shopping network to meet the need of shopping.

The direct effect of attraction of program host and celebrity guest on television

shopping exposure is not significant statistically. However, attraction of program host and celebrity host can indirectly influence television shopping exposure through positive affect. We can also explain this result based on in-depth interviews. Most interviewees express that the program hosts or celebrity guests would affect their buying intentions or buying decisions, but the hosts or celebrities must be those they trust or like. That implies that the hosts and celebrities must be those who can make interviewees feel good. Hence, attraction of program host and celebrity guest indirectly influence television shopping exposure through positive affect.

As interviewee #01 says:

I pay more attention to two specific program hosts because they usually do good presentations and explicitly teach how to use products. Interviewee #05 says:

The tongue, credibility, and appearance of program hosts are important to me. If the hosts are those I do not like, I would flick the channel to others. And interviewee #13 says:

If the program guest is a famous guest, I would pay more attention to watch what products are sold. Positive Affect

Positive affect are supposed to be influenced by promotional stimuli exposure and attraction of program host and celebrity guest. Because consumers are apt to connect promotions with good outcomes, consumers exposed to more promotional stimuli are more likely to have good feelings or positive affect. The result of in-depth interviewees indicates that some interviewees’ mood state may be affected by the promotional activities, especially the restricted promotions.

For example, interviewee #12 says:

If the products are on special promotions, I would pay more attention. If the products are those I like originally, I would be apt feel excited when the remained time for ordering promotional items decreases.

Further, attraction of program host and celebrity guest positively influences positive affect and feels buying urges next. In-depth interviews, we can find that interviewees

would connect good outcomes after buying the products during exposed to the host’s demonstration.

For example, interviewee #03 says:

My first shopping experience is buying an open sauté pan. The program host demonstrated how to use it to cook a delicacy. On that time, I think if I buy the pan, I could cook well as the program host did. And, interviewee #11 says:

When the celebrity guest is a person I like, I will be more likely to buy the product. I would think that the celebrity guest can have an attractive appearance due to using the product.

Other Effects on Television Shopping

In additional to the predictions in this study, we also find other effects we did not discuss previously on television shopping. First, the installment service may be important to television shopping buying behaviors. Most interviewees mention that the installment service is one of major motivations for them to patronize television shopping. The installment service makes them feel having available money to consume.

As interviewee #06 says:

I like to buy from the television shopping program because it provides the installment payment service. Due to this service, I can buy something I can not afford originally. And, interviewee #08 says:

The installment payment service is a major reason for me to shop through the television shopping network because I just start to work and have limited income. Second, the return policy is another major motivation for interviewees to shop via the television shopping network. Many interviewees, especially those having plentiful purchase experiences, admire the return policy of the television shopping network. They can return the items without any preconditions within the trial period. This advantage makes them to order any items they want to try because they know items can be returned easily.

As interviewee #01 says:

I love television shopping because it provides better return service than traditional physical stores. Interviewee #05 says:

I think the best advantage of shopping via television shopping channels is the good return service. I can return the item easily within the trial period. I also like to buy novelty from television shopping channels. I usually order the item that I want to try, and if I do not like it, I can return it easily. And, interviewee #10 says:

Most of my orderings are focused on healthcare food. I buy for myself and my kids and choose by brands. In the traditional channels, products can not be returned once unpacking, but it can be allowed in the television shopping channels.

However, we also notice that some interviewees still afraid they can not return the For example, interviewee #02 says:

Although the operator declares that shoppers can return the items in the trial period, I still afraid that I can not return the items smoothly.

Finally, we can find that the active television shopping environment also contributes to consumers’ buying behaviors. In the traditional shopping environment, salespeople only use simple tools to help hawk. However, in the television shopping environment can demonstrate by more complete tools or videos. Five interviewees (one third of all interviewees) ever buy travel products. The reasons for them to buy travel products on the television shopping channels are similar. Traditionally, the travel agents just provide travel information by paper sheets. However, the television shopping programs introduce travel products by broadcasting videos about the tourist spots. It helps viewers imagine where they will visit and motives them to desire traveling.

Interviewee #06 says:

Television shopping would arouse the desire of the bottom of my heart. For example, the travel product, program hosts introduce the route of the travel in detail, and this makes me to consume impulsively. For example, interviewee #13:

The traditional tourist agency only give the information in writing, but the television shopping can provide more appealing information by the introductory video.

items smoothly and carefully make their buying decisions.

Chapter 5 Conclusion and Suggestion

5.1 Research Conclusions

A. Television shopping is positively influenced by buying urge and money available, and is negatively influenced by perceived risk.

Given the significant relationship between television shopping and buying urge, we can know that buying urge precedes the television shopping buying behavior. When consumers feels buying urges during watching the television shopping program, they are more likely to make purchases next. Also, it has been found that, an individual’s income is a significant predictor of his or her television shopping buying behavior (Grant et al. 1991). This study shows that consumers with more available money would shop with no more deliberation. When they see something they like on the television shopping channels, they usually order spontaneous. Further, Schiffman and Kanuk (2000) suggested that when consumers feel perceived risk, they may not fulfill the buying urge because of the uncertain outcomes. The results of this study coincide with this viewpoint. Consumers have more perceived risks on television shopping, they would make less purchase from the television shopping programs; vice versa, consumers have less perceived risks on television shopping less, they would make more purchase from the television shopping programs. Although the influence of time risk and overall risk on television shopping seems to be diminishing due to television shopping operators’ improvements, there are still social risk, financial risk, performance risk and functional risk existed in the television shopping environment. B. Buying urge is positively affected by television shopping exposure, positive affect, impulse buying tendency, and promotional stimuli exposure.

When consumers watch television shopping channels, they may recognize need for products and felt buying urges (Park and Lennon 2006). In accordance with Park and Lennon’s research (2006), this study shows that consumers with more television shopping exposure, which means they watch more television shopping programs, would be more likely to be stimulated by the displayed merchandise and feel more buying urges. Also, the positive relationship between television shopping exposure and positive affect is found in this study. During watching television shopping programs, consumers would be more

likely to drop into the scene created by the programs and consumers would be more likely to feel positive affect, or we can say consumers have good feelings, and they would feel buying urges and make purchases next. Consumers with higher impulse buying tendency would feel more buying urges (Beatty and Ferrell 1998) And, impulse buying tendency may be enhanced in the television shopping environment because merchandise offered on television shopping channels is more accessible (Park and Lennon 2006). In this study, we show that consumers having higher impulse buying tendency would feel more buying urges in the television shopping context. Furthermore, the positive relationship between buying urge and promotional stimuli exposure are established in this study. Consumers having more promotional stimuli exposure would feel more buying urges.

C. Television shopping exposure is positively influenced by positive affect, attitude toward television shopping, and time available for television viewing, and is negatively influenced by time available for going out shopping.

In prior literature related to television shopping (Grant et al. 1991; Li 2004; Mafé and Blas 2007; Skumanich and Kintsfather 1998), television shopping exposure is suggested to be affected by television viewing, and in turn, causes a positive effect on television shopping. In accordance with prior literature, television shopping exposure is found to play an important role in understanding television shopping buying behaviors. Results show that television shopping exposure is positively influenced by positive affect, attitude toward television shopping, and time available for television viewing, and is negatively influenced by time available for going out shopping; and in turn, causes a positive effect on buying urge. When consumers feel more positive affect during watching television shopping programs, they are more likely to watch more television shopping programs to keep their good feelings. Further, consumers have more positive attitude toward television shopping, they would watch more television shopping. This results coincides prior literature (Eastlick and Liu 1997; Mafé and Blas 2007), which suggested that consumers with positive attitude toward perceived attributes of television shopping would be more likely to shop via the television shopping network. Further, consumers with more available time for television viewing would have more television shopping exposure. That is, when consumers watch more television, they more likely to flick through television shopping channels (Grant et al. 1991; Li 2004; Mafé and Blas 2007; Skumanich and Kintsfather 1998). Furthermore, in prior research (Eastlick and Liu 1997; Mafé and Blas 2007), television shopping is viewed

as a feasible shopping channel for consumers with less time to go out shopping because it enables consumers shopping in home efficiently. The results of this study also support the negative relationship between television shopping exposure and time available for going out shopping. It is found that consumers with less available time for going out shopping, such as housewives with children and office workers, would have more television shopping exposure.

D. Positive affect is positively influenced by promotional stimuli exposure and attraction of program host and celebrity guest.

The result of this study shows that consumers exposed to more promotional stimuli would feel more positive affect or we can say have more good feelings. This positive relationship between positive affect and promotional stimuli exposure comes from that consumers may connect promotional stimuli with good outcome. For example, consumers tend to think they save money after buying items on promotion (Chandon et al. 2000; Inman et al. 1990). Further, the restricted promotions may much affect viewers’ mood states. The countdowns of remained time or quantity for ordering would let viewers feel positive affect such as excited and attentive. There is no opportunity for consumers to develop parasocial relationships with salespeople on the television shopping channels in Taiwan. However, program hosts and celebrity guests, who are salespeople in the television shopping context, do contribute to television shopping buying behaviors here. The results reveal that the more attraction of program host and celebrity guest, the more positive affect consumers would feel. Noticing the relevance of positive affect, it is surprising that it has received so little attention. Possibly it is because interviewees may be difficult to recall mood states when they are absent from the television shopping scene. In any event, we have showed its potential importance and usefulness in understanding television shopping buying behaviors.

5.2 Managerial Implications

Some of the managerial implications of the findings can be provided to the operators. First, given the significant relationship between money available and television shopping, television shopping operators should attempt to influence consumers feel that they have available money to spend. In addition to keeping providing installment payment services,

operators can tie sales events to paydays to make consumers feel they have available money to spend. On the other hand, according to the negative relationship between television shopping and perceived risk, operators should attempt to reduce consumers’ perceived risks. For example, providing quality products reduces the performance risk, and enhancing the creditability of the declaration on products reduces social risk.

Second, due to the positive influence of promotional stimuli exposure on buying urge, operators can utilize promotion activities, especially restricted promotion activities, to encourage consumers spending more. Television shopping operators can use promotion activities, especially restricted promotion activities, to stimulate consumers to create buying urges. However, noting the findings of in-depth interviews, operators should make the promotion activities be credible; that is, consumers can only enjoy discounts within the promotional period, or abusing this marketing technique will make consumers feel that they are deceived. Additionally, operators can encourage consumers with desirable individual difference scores. For example, the profiles of high impulsive shoppers may be identified so that promotions or sales events can be targeted at these consumers. Further, noticing the positive influence of positive affect and television shopping exposure on urges and real buying behaviors, television shopping operators should persistently devoted to creating positive shopping environments. Countdowns of the number of remaining items or the time remaining for ordering, credible and trustable program hosts or celebrity guests, and appropriate music and lighting encourage consumers to watch programs more and to patronize more.

Finally, given the significant relationship between television shopping exposure and attitude toward television, television shopping operators should attempt to improve the image by constantly take a great deal of care over the presentations of products, the services, and consumer guarantees. Noting the negative influence of time available for going out shopping on, television shopping operators might attempt to use the consumers’ characteristics to sell suitable merchandise at the appropriate time. For example, at daytime, home improvements or kitchen equipments can be sold to housewives; merchandise can be focused on the need of workers, such as recreational goods or body care foods. The variables we examine are not necessarily new, but operators must constantly inspect how well they are conducting these issues.

5.3 Limitations and Future Work

We notice that there are measurement problems throughout this study. Different from the traditional shopping environment, television shopping environment consists of many specific elements, such as music, lamplight, and marquee. Further, the performance of merchandise demonstrated by the program host beyond the TV screen appears to be more magical. It is difficult to obtain measurements of all the variables at the most appropriate time and in the most appropriate setting when it lacks elements of television shopping. For example, an individual’s mood states do contribute to the impulse buying behavior in the television shopping environment, but respondents may hardly to express their feelings when they are absent from the scene. Also, not all variables are included. For example, we do not explore what is the purpose or the category of merchandise of a specific shopping. What we discuss is focused on consumers’ past over all shopping experience or viewpoints.

Another issue of concern here is that there are many of possible interactions between the variables examined in this study; however, we just concentrate on the main effects of the variables. In fact, some of these interactions may be more interesting than the main effects. For example, the interaction between perceived risk and the situational variables on buying behaviors may be relevant. That is, money available may be more relevant to low perceived risk’s than to high perceived risk’s? How do perceived risk interact with the stimulating variables? We believe that these possible interactions would be interesting avenue to pursue.

Further, a number of constructs need more attention in relation to operationalization.

Many of the constructs are comparatively new to the television shopping and need more scale development effort, such as attraction of host and celebrity, promotional stimuli exposure, and positive affect.

Finally, our sample, conducted in a regional shopping mall, are obviously neither actually random nor inevitably representative of a larger population. Given the focus on relationships between variables rather than population’s demographic profile, it may not be a major problem in this study. Future studies should access the generalizability of these findings to a more suitable sample, such as the members of a specific television shopping operator.

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Appendix I: Survey Questionnaire

愛的先生/小姐您好：首先，感謝您撥冗填答問卷。這是一份學術性研究問卷，旨在瞭解您對於電視購物的看法，您的回答並無對錯優劣之分，請依照您個人的看法與感受回答即可。本問卷採匿名方式，您所填答的任何資料，將僅供學術研究之用，敬請安心作答。您的熱心參與將有助於本研究之順利完成，在此向您致上最衷心的感謝！國立成功大學國際企業研究所指導教授：蔡東峻博士研究生：陳獻凱敬上

★請問您是否在電視購物頻道上買過東西？ □是 □否

非常不同意非常不同意

不同意

有點不同意

普通

有點同意

同意

非常同意 ★一般而言，我覺得電視購物的主持人

1. 是漂亮的或英俊的………………………………………………………… 2. 是幽默風趣的……………………………………………………………… 3. 是讓人容易喜歡的………………………………………………………… 4. 會提供豐富的產品知識…………………………………………………… 5. 會示範產品的使用方式，有助我解決日常生活上的困擾……………… ★一般而言，我覺得在電視購物上代言的名人

6. 外表是具吸引力的………………………………………………………… 7. 是被眾人所喜歡的………………………………………………………… 8. 是讓人容易喜歡的………………………………………………………… 9. 是可以信賴的……………………………………………………………… 10.是不會誤導我的…………………………………………………………… ★一般而言，我覺得電視購物

11.提供一個又好又方便的購物管道………………………………………… 12.是以令人討厭的手法來銷售產品…………………………………………

第二部分：以下問項是希望了解您在看電視購物時的反應，請在各問項中，勾選最符合的程度： ★在看電視購物時，

1. 我常會有想要買東西的衝動……………………………………………… 2. 我會想買一些沒有計畫要買的東西……………………………………… 3. 我會想買一些以前不曾想過要買的東西………………………………… 4. 若有限時或限量特價活動時，會吸引我的注意………………………… 5. 若限量特價的產品數量越來越少時，我會感到購買商品的迫切性…… 6. 若限時特價的可購買時間越來越少時，我會感到購買商品的迫切性…

□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □□ □ □ □ □□□□□ □□□□□ □□ □□□□□ □□□□□ □□ □□□□□ □□□□□ □□

□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □ □□□□□□ □□□□□□ □□□□□□

同意普通第一部分：

以下問項是希望了解您對於電視購物以及其主持人與代言人的看法，請在各問項中，勾選最符合的程度：

不同意有點不同意

有點同意

非常同意

★我覺得在電視購物上買東西，

1. 可享受鑑賞期服務………………………………………………………… 2. 可享受送貨到府的好處…………………………………………………… 3. 可省去親自到實體商店的麻煩…………………………………………… 4. 可避免在店裡與人擠來擠去……………………………………………… ★我覺得在電視購物上買東西， 5. 是一種浪費錢的行為……………………………………………………… 6. 會讓我被認為是愚蠢的…………………………………………………… 7. 要給予業者信用卡資料，會使我擔心…………………………………… 8. 會有日後維修上的困難…………………………………………………… 9. 不是一個好的花錢方法…………………………………………………… 10.不會被周遭的人所認同…………………………………………………… 11.會買到有瑕疵的商品……………………………………………………… 12.會買到不耐用的商品………………………………………………………

第四部分：

以下問項是希望了解一些您平常的情形，請在各問項中，勾選最符合的程度：

1. 我常不由自主地買東西……………………………………………………… 2. 我常買東西都不會多加思考………………………………………………… 3. 「先買再說」常是我的購買原則…………………………………………… 4. 平常我可以外出購物的時間有限…………………………………………… 5. 平常我外出購物時會很匆忙………………………………………………… □ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □ □□□□ □□□□□□□□ □□□□ □□□□□□□□ □□□□ □□□□□□□□

□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□ □ □ □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□

第五部分：以下問項為一些用來描述正面情緒的形容詞，主要是希望了解您平常在「看電視購物頻道」時，可能出現的內心情緒反應，請在各選項中，勾選最符合的感受程度：有趣的、歡樂的：□完全沒感覺 □不太有感覺 □一點感覺 □普通 □強烈 □很強烈 □非常強烈熱情的、熱誠的：□完全沒感覺 □不太有感覺 □一點感覺 □普通 □強烈 □很強烈 □非常強烈得意的、自豪的：□完全沒感覺 □不太有感覺 □一點感覺 □普通 □強烈 □很強烈 □非常強烈興奮的、激動的：□完全沒感覺 □不太有感覺 □一點感覺 □普通 □強烈 □很強烈 □非常強烈專注的、留意的：□完全沒感覺 □不太有感覺 □一點感覺 □普通 □強烈 □很強烈 □非常強烈

受到啟發的：□完全沒感覺 □不太有感覺 □一點感覺 □普通 □強烈 □很強烈 □非常強烈

同意第三部分：以下問項是希望了解您對於電視購物的看法，請在各問項中，勾選最符合的程度：非常不同意非常不同意

不同意不同意

有點不同意有點不同意

普通普通

有點同意有點同意

同意

非常同意非常同意

第六部分：收看與購買行為

1. 請問您收看電視的頻率為何？

□幾乎都不看 □很少看 □偶爾看 □普通 □常看 □很常看 □非常常看

2. 請問您平均每天收看電視的時間大約多久？

□30分鐘以下 □31分鐘～60分鐘 □61分鐘～90分鐘 □91分鐘～120分鐘 □121分鐘～150分鐘 □151分鐘～180分鐘 □181分鐘以上

3. 請問您看電視購物頻道的頻率為何？

□幾乎都不看 □很少看 □偶爾看 □普通 □常看 □很常看 □非常常看 4. 請問您平均每天收看電視購物頻道的時間大約多久？

□10分鐘以下 □11分鐘～20分鐘 □21分鐘～30分鐘 □31分鐘～40分鐘 □41分鐘～50分鐘 □51分鐘～60分鐘 □61分鐘以上

5. 請問您在電視購物上消費的頻率為何？ (沒有買過電視購物請跳答第11題)

6. 請問您在電視購物上，總共大約消費幾次？ _________次；退貨幾次？ _________次 7. 請問您覺得過去在電視購物的消費經驗大致為何？ □很差 □差 □普通 □好 □很好 8. 請問您在電視購物頻道上，平均每次消費金額大約多少？

□1,000元以下 □1,000元～2,000元 □2,001元～4,000元 □4,001元～6,000元 □6,001元～8,000元 □8,001～10,000元 □10,001元以上

9. 請問您最常在那一個電視購物頻道消費？

□東森購物台 □momo TV台 □ViVa TV台 □其他________________ 10.請問您在電視購物上，對於各類商品消費的頻率為何？３Ｃ家電：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買居家生活：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買服飾配件：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買珠寶精品：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買食品保健：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買美妝保養：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買交通旅遊：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買運動休閒：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買

其他__________：□從來都不買 □很少買 □偶爾買 □常買 □很常買

11.請問您有會特別收看的電視購物主持人嗎？(會特別注意看他/她在賣什麼) □有 (請勾選主持人) □沒有

東森購物：□利菁 □斯容 □玉菲 □何羽 □禹安 □君良 □新寧 □昱晴 □薛凱莉富邦ｍｏｍｏ：□馨玲 □仁綱 □嘉禾 □欣怡 □靖鳳 □姿貝 □柔安 □世瑋 □任潔玲

ＶｉＶａ：□馬妞 □旭村 □歡歡 □金宸 □奾淇 □禕桐 □郁涵 □何敏 □晴文

□其他____________________ □不記得名字

12.請問您未來在電視購物上消費的可能性為何？

□不可能 □不太可能 □不一定 □可能 □很有可能

第七部分：基本資料 1. 性別： □男 □女

2. 年齡：□18歲以下 □19歲～29歲 □30歲～39歲 □40歲～49歲 □50歲～59歲 □60歲以上 3. 婚姻狀況：□單身 □已婚 _____個小孩

4. 教育程度：□國（初）中及以下 □高中（職） □專科或大學 □研究所 □博士 5. 職業：□軍公教 □工、商、服務業 □農漁業 □自由業

□退休 □家管 □學生 □其它＿＿＿＿＿＿

6. 居住地：□基隆 □台北 □桃園 □新竹 □苗栗 □台中 □彰化 □南投 □雲林

□嘉義 □台南 □高雄 □屏東 □宜蘭 □花蓮 □台東 □澎湖 □金門 □馬祖 □其他__________ 7. 平均每月可支配所得(即扣除每月基本開銷之後，可供本身自由運用的收入)： □5,000元以下 □5,001元~10,000元 □10,001元~20,000元 □20,001元~30,000元 □30,001元~40,000元 □40,001元~50,000元 □50,001元~60,000元 □60,001元~70,000元 □70,001元~80,000元 □80,001元~90,000元 □90,001元~100,000元 □100,000元以上

本問卷到此結束，再次感謝您的參與!

Appendix II: Frequency of Purchase

Frequencies

464540353025201510

Purchase Frequencies3

Appendix III: Frequency of Product Categories

200

Frequencies

180160140120100806040200

Electronics

NerverRarelySometimesOftenVery Often

1093853142

For the Home

855558153

142

153

5558

3733

1430

Jewelry & Luxury Goods

175231430

31399

Beauty1093162112

262

3323

109

132

135

109

175

160

150

2424

Clothes & Accessories

132373394

Food & Health

Care

135313991

Traffic & Travel160242461

Sports & Leisure150332380

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