新编简明英语语言学教程整理

新编简明英语语言学教程整理

定义

Linguistics ：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

General Linguistics ：The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. language ：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

Design Features ：It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The scope of linguistics：The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)

The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）

The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）

The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学） 1.宽式音标Broad transcription

The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标Narrow transcription

The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音Voiceless

When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音Voicing

Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. 5.元音Vowel

The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅音Consonants

The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音位Phoneme

The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体Allophones

Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. 9.音素phone

A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对Minimal pair

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

3.谓语Predicate

The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.定式子句Finite Clause

A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. 5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C)

In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . 6.主要子句Matrix Clause

In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause. 7.层次结构Hierarchical structure

The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.语法关系Grammatical relations

The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. 9.句法类型Syntactic category

A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 10.表层结构S-structure

A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深层结构D-structure

A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普遍语法General grammar

A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.

13.移动α 规则Move α

A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句法移位Syntactic movement

Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.转换原则Transformation rules

Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 16.X标杆理论X-bar theory

A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”→（Spec）X(Compl). 1.命名论The naming theory

The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. 2.意念论The conceptualist view

It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3.语境论Conceptualism

It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.

4.行为主义论Behaviorism

It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. 5.意义Sense

It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. 6.所指意义Reference

It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 7.同义词Synonymy

It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 8.多义词Polysemy

It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 9.同音(形)异义Homonymy

It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 10.同音异义Homophones

It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 11.同形异义Homographs

It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n. 12.上下义关系Hyponymy

It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.

13.反义词Antonymy

It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义

It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.

this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G.Leech提出 It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.

Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.

通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。 16.先设前提Presupposition

It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 17.蕴涵Entailment

Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde.

1.语境Context

The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 2.言语行为理论Speech act theory

It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?”

The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.

3.叙述句Constatives

Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;

4.行为句Performatives

Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. 5.言内行为Locutionary Act

A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 6.言外行为Illcotionary Act

An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act performed in saying something.

7.言后行为 Perlocutionary Act

Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. 8.句子意义Sentence meaning

It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. 9.话语意义Utterance meaning

It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered. 10.合作原则Cooperative Principle

It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 11.会话含义Conversational implicatures

According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP. 1.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics

A term used in stead of historical linguistics to the study of language change at various points in time at various historical stage. 2.元音大交替Great Vowel Shift

A series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system. 3.词尾脱落Apocope

The deletion of a word-final vowel segment.

4.插入音Epenthesis

The insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word. 5.首字母缩略词Acronym

A word created by combining the initials of a number of words. 6.混合法Blending

A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words. 7.缩写词Abbreviation

A shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. 8.略写词Clipping

A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. 9.逆向构词法Back-formation

A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word. 10.语义扩大化Semantic broadening

The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation.缩小less general or inclusive 11.原始语Protolanguage

The original form of a language family which has ceased to exist. 12.语系Family language

A group of historically related languages that have developed from a comon ancestral language. 13.同源词Cognate

A word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source. 14.语音同化Sound assimilation

The physiological effect of one sound on another. 15.内部借用Internal borrowing

The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation. 16.派生法Derivation

It refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.

17.语义转换Semantic shift

It’s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning. 18.语义细化Elaboration

Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. 19.古英语Old English

Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxsons invaded b the British Isles from northern Europe.

20.中世纪英语Middle English in 1066

Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William. 1.言语社区Speech Community

It refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.

2.社会方言Socialect

A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class. 3.语域Register

A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.

4.标准语Standard Language

A superposed prestigious variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. 5.通用语Lingua Franca

A variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects.

6.洋泾浜语Pidgin边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇+缩减的语法结构by其他语言的本族语者

A marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures,used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication. 7.双言现象Diglossia

A sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation. 8.语言禁忌Linguistic taboo

An obscene,profane,or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite”society. 9.委婉语Euphemism

A word or expression that is thought to be mild,indirect,or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression. 10.语码转换Code-Switching

It refers to a bilingual speaker foten uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker.人们在交际中根据需要轮流使用不同的语言、方言或其他变体。 11.语言变体Speech Variety

It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or gourp of speakers.the distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic,or a combination of linguistic features. 12.双语Bilingualism

It refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.

13.少数民族方言Ethnic Dialect

It refers to a phenomenon that within a society speech variation may come about cos of different ethnic backgrounds. 14.使用域Domain

It refers to a phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that’s, a fairly clear functional diferentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations,for example, the home Domain,Employment Domain. 15.语言计划Language Planning

It’s certain authorities,such as the government choosees a particular speech variety and spread the use of it,including its pronunciation and spelling systems,across regional boundaries. 16.发音Accent

If refers to a way of pronunciation which tells the listener something about the speaker’s regional or social background.

17.习语Idiolect=Personal dialect

A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional,social,and stylistic variation,in one form or another. 18.混合语Creoles

It’s originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.e.g. French-based creoles spoken in Haiti and Louisiana. 19.语言情景Language Situation

A linguistic situation in which two standard language are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. For example, in Canada, both english and french are official languages. 20.区域变体Regional Variation

Speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.e.g. American English and British English,ect.

21.语域变体Register Varieties=Situational Dialects

Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. 22.称呼术语Address Terms

An address term,or address form refers to the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing. 23.俚语Slang

It’s a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary,typically of arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness. 24. 社会语言学Sociolinguistics

It’s the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language with in socical context. 1.大脑皮层Cerebral Cortex

The outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.

接受所有感觉器官传来的信息，是人的认知能力所存在的区域。 2.大脑侧化Brain Lateralization

The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 认知机能和感知机能位于大脑的某一半球。 3.语言侧化Linguistic lateralization

Hemispheric specialization or dominance for language. 4.两耳分听Dichotic Listening

A research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear. 5.关键期the critical period

An early period of one’s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain laterlization for language functions.

6. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis假设

A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. 人们看世界的方式完全或部分地由他们母语的结构决定， 7.自我交际Interpersonal communication

The process of using language within the individual to facilitate one’s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts. 8.无声言语Subvocal Speech

A term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other. 用于指语言和思维是同一或近乎相同的. 9.神经元Neurons

Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called Neurons. 10.脑半球Hemispheres

The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemisphere. 11.Broca’s area French Surgeon: Paul Broca

The language centre in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere is know as Broca’s area. 12.语言决定论Linguistic determinism

Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism. 13.语言相对论Linguistic relativism

It refers to the belief that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background.

It’s hypothesis proposed by an American linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf concerning language and thought. 1.语言习得Language acquisition

Language acquisition refers to the development of the Child’s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community. 2.输入Input

It refers to the language which a learner bears or receives and from which he or she can learn. 3.行为主义学习理论Behaviourist learning theory

It’s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner’s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition. 4.独词句One word holophrase / holophrase

It refers to a single word that appears in children’s early speech and functions as a complex idea or sentence.

5.电报式言语Telegraphic speech 属于early multiword 阶段

It refers to the early speech of children. it’s so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams(such as non-substantive words and inflectional morphemes). 也可以说成缺少inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. 6.转移Language transfer

It refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative. 7.对比分析Contrastive Analysis

It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of

teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.

补充establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems. 8.错误分析Error Analysis

An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner’ s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules.

一种研究和分析第二语言学习者所犯错误的方法.它指出语言学习者所犯的许多错误不是母语干扰所致而是体现了一些普遍的学习策略.如概括过度和规则简化。 9.语际语Interlanguage

The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language. 10.语言僵化Fossilization

A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.

11.工具性学习动机Instrumental motivation

The learner’s desire to learn a second language because its useful for some functional, ‘’instrumental’ goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information. 12.介入性学习动机Integrative motivation

The learner’s desire to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.为了与人交流。 13.语言文化移入Acculturation

A process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community. 14.幼儿保育员言语Caretaker speech

Simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, ect. When they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language. 15.干扰Interference

The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language. 16.国际语法Universal Grammar

The different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system is called.. 17.第一语言的习得the 1st language acquisition

The development of a first or native language is called the 1st language acquisition.

18.It’s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an opening vocabulary of more than 2.000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process. 19.语法系统发展 语音 Phonology 句法Syntax 形态 Morphology

词汇和语义Vocabulary and semantics 1.tone

Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature. 2.Negative transfer

Negative transfer occurs when the frist language pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. it’s commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning. 3.hapology

It refers to the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence,

For example, the old English word ”engla-land”(the land of Angles)came to be pronounced “England” through the assimilation of ”la-la” sounds. 4.relational opposites

Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.

5.语言判定Linguistic determinism

It refers to the fact that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on langauge, to put it more bluntly, language determines thought. 6.语调intonation

When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. There are 4 types of intonation:

The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. 7.深层结构Deep structure

It’s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. it consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no transformations have yet applied to it. 8.连字符Diacritics

Diacritics are a set of symbols that added to the letter symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible. Diacritics are only used in narrow transcription.

For example, in broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound[l ]in words like leaf [li;f],feel[fi;l]. 9.历史和比较语言学Historical and comparative linguistics It’s a study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone.

It’s historical because it deals with the historical development of individual languages.

It’s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among languages, classifying related languages into language families and reconstructing their ancestral languages. 10.正向转移Positive transfer

Transfer can be positive or negative,. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when a first language pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language.

例如,French people find no difficulty in learning the English word ”table” cos it has the same meaning as the French word” table”. 11.反向转移Negative transfer

Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.反向转移即人们常说的干扰 干扰Interference

The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language. 12.人际交流Intrapersonal communication

It refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. as a means of intrapersonal communication,

language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.

判断

3.the word ’language’ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.

4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.

5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题

6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.

4.判断题：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

5.判断题:A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.

19.判断题：although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication. the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect. it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.

20.The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.

17.判断题a change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as Epenthesis. (此现象属于sound addition) 例子

Spinle→spindle emty→empty glimse→glimpse timer→timber 24.美国的Stephenson Krashen区分了Acquisition和 Learning

He said Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.

Learning, it is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

25.判断题 The learner’s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one’s L1competence to the target language competence.

26.About the interlanguage, specifically, it consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner’s native and target languages. It’s a product of L2learning, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.

语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语的相关并相似的语言体系，既介于本族语和目的语之间，又不同于他们的语言体系。语际语是第二语言训练、母语干扰、对目的语语言规则概括以及学习者的学习和交际策略的综合产物。

27.判断题 although its found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition. 20.判断题Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the ‘more difficult’ sounds.

21.The emergency of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds.

22.Researchers are particularly interested in the increasing complexity of negative sentences in child language development. they have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development.

23.判断题 SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquires or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language.(L1) 16.判断题 A safe conclusion from Genie’s case for the moment is that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop. 8.判断题the standard language is a superposed,socially prestigious dialect of language,it's the langauge employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media,and taught in educational institutions,including school settings where the langaue is taught as a foreign or second language.

9.Language varieties other han the standard are called nonstandard,or vernacular languages. 10.The standard language of many countries,is also designated as the national or official language. 11.Lingua franca,an italian term literally meaning”frankish language”or”frankish tongue”.

12.The spoken language of modern china普通话embodies thepronunciation of the Beijing dialect, the grammar of Northern chinese dialects, the vocabulary of modern colloquial chinese.

42.判断题syntactically,the verb of an old English sentence precedes, rather than follows,the subject ,as is indicated by the transcription.

43.Norman Conquer makrked the dawning of the Middle English period. 44.Bilingual,pidin＆creole speakers contribute to formation of新语言变体

Langue和parole的区别

⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky N.Chomsky

in1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家

Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.

Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.

Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.

⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett Charles Hockett ----design features

1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.

Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.

2.how are the English consonants classified?

By place of articulation and By manner of articulation

3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?

语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么? Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.

Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.

A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.

4.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.

Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.

5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?

Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.

除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上述特征的语音组合.

By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.

6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.

Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序规则Sequential rules

Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则Assimilation rules

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则Deletion rule

It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.

话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。 1.语用学的几个重要的理论

⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory

由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出 ⑵会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出; 2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle

数量 the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 Make your contribution as informative as required;

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话 Do not say what you believe to false.

Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence

关系 the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant 方式 the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序 Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly.

3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类 阐述性Representatives---to commit the speaker to something’s being the

Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性,

指令性Directives---are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.

例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有实例

承诺性Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型

表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating

宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings

about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句

I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force. 4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分

Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.

The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. 5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types:

The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

6.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别 Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.

Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。

7.While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are complete sentences In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to complete sentences 1.描述变化的本质characterized the nature of language change

All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar.

2.语言变化的原因list the major causes of language change

Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing与语法变化有关

⑴语音同化Sound assimilation

Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes. ⑵规则简化Rule simplification

It’s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english. ⑶内部借用Internal Borrowing

It’s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language’s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another.

⑷规则细化 Elaboration

It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. ⑸社会因素Social triggers ⑹文化转移Cultural transmission

⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar.

A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.

13.通用语Lingua Franca和洋泾浜语Pidgin的区别

⑴Pidgin is used for some practical purposes,such as trading,by groups of people who donot know each other’s langauge.Lingua Franca may have native speakers such as English,

⑵Pidgin is not a native language of a particular region,but simply a marginal language used by people whose cultures are sharply separated and whoes business contact is very specialized.

10.法国外科医生Broca是第一个证明damage to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit.

11.德国内科医生Carl Wernicke在1874发表的论文假设there was more than one language area in the left brain.

12.Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke’s area.this area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, for the comprehension of written language and require connections between visual and speech organs.

13.When we listen,the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke’s area.

14.The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about two to puberty. 定义！！

15.Lenneberg的推断，推出了Cerebral plasticity.

17. 早期学者针对语言和思想的观点

⑴Plato suggested that thought was the soul’s discourse with itself. 柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。

⑵Aristotle, who argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experiences.

亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。

The debate between them, one being mentalist, other empiricist.

两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义，另一个是经验主义。

⑶Watson, thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking, Bloomfield, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible. 美国的Watson承袭了Plato的观点，Bloomfield提出了近似的观点。 三、问答题

1.in what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized?

In what have come to be known as Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain.

2.how In your opinion does language relate thought and culture?

Language doesn’t determine the way the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts other members of the cultures.

3.Describe the processes of language perception, comprehension and production.

It’s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern,

when we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke’s area, this signal is then transferred to Broca’s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word.

When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke’s area and sent to Broca’s area which determines the details of their form and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area. Interference from the mother tongue:

Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning, and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages.

Interlingual interference:

Interlingual interference，or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures. Overgeneralization：

The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations 二、问答题

1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?

Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.

The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.

2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?

Language is a rule-governed system. Language is basically vocal. Language is arbitrary.

Language is used for human communication.

3.what’s Broca’s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?

⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca’s area. ⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient’s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.

⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.

4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?

⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.

⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.

⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

⑷It’s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner.

⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.

5.suprasegmental features? how does it function in conveying meaning?

⑴ the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features. ⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation. ⑶ The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning. 超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。 主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。 超切分特征区分意义。

6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics? 语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？ ⑴language change is inevitable.

⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.

⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar—in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.

⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.

7.What’s the difference between the instrumental motivation and the integrative motivation of the learner’s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？

⑴usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a communicative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose.

⑵in certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations may count for more. ⑶when the target language functions as a foreign language ,the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation;

⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective.

8.词素的类别和使用How many morphemes are there in the English language? state what they are and illustrate how they work?

⑴there are two: free and bound morphemes.

⑵free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.

⑶bound morphemes are those that cant be used independently but have to combined with other morphemes.

⑷either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2types:

A root is often seen as part of a word,it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

⑸Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations. it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes, 音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related.

⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ];

⑵A phoneme is a phonological unit, it’s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, it’s a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear[ l ] or a dark [ l ],depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.

⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.