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罗马的共和宪政体制

2022-12-22 来源:步旅网
罗马的共和宪政体制

TheConstitutionoftheRomanRepublicwasasetof

guidelinesandprinciplespasseddownmainlythroughprecedent.[1]Theconstitutionwaslargelyunwritten,uncodified,andconstantlyevolving.Ratherthancreatingagovernmentthatwasprimarilyademocracy(aswasancientAthens),anaristocracy(aswasancientSparta),oramonarchy(aswasRomebeforeand,inmanyrespects,aftertheRepublic),theRomanconstitutionmixedthesethreeelements,thuscreatingthreeseparatebranchesofgovernment.[2]Thedemocraticelementtooktheformofthelegislativeassemblies,thearistocraticelementtooktheformoftheSenate,andthemonarchicalelementtooktheformofthemanyterm-limitedexecutivemagistrates.

罗马共和的宪政制度是一个主要通过惯例逐渐确定其基本原则和主要程序规范的制度。其“宪法”大多是不成文、不断进化的。与其他几种产生政府的主要政体:民主制(像古代雅典)、贵族制(像古代斯巴达)、君主制(像共和以前的罗马,或者从其他方面看,共和以后的罗马也是)所不同的是,罗马的宪政混合了这三种政体的元素,创立了三种互相独立的国家机构。在这个国家机构中,民主制的成分以罗马的各种立法大会为表现形式,贵族制的成分则以元老院为表现形式,而君主制的成分则以其大量的有任期的行政机关为表现形式。

Theultimatesourceofsovereigntyinthisancientrepublic,asinmodernrepublics,wasthedemos(people).[3]ThePeopleofRomegatheredinto

legislativeassembliestopasslawsandtoelectexecutivemagistrates.[4]ElectiontoamagisterialofficeresultedinautomaticmembershipintheSenate(forlife,unlessimpeached).[5]TheSenatemanagedtheday-to-dayaffairsinRome,whilesenatorspresidedoverthecourts.[6]Executivemagistratesenforcedthelaw,andpresidedovertheSenateandthelegislativeassemblies.[7]

在这个古代共和国中,就像现代的众多共和国一样,主权的最终来源是人民(古语写作Demos)。“罗马人民”汇聚到罗马的各种立法大会中,进行诸如通过法律和选举行政机关这类工作。入选政府官职则自动享有成为元老院成员的资格(这种资格是终身的,除非受到弹劾)。元老院管理着罗马的日常事务,元老们署理各个衙署法庭。行政机关执行法律,对元老院和立法大会负责。

Acomplexsetofchecksandbalancesdevelopedbetweenthesethreebranches,soastominimizetheriskoftyrannyandcorruption,andtomaximizethelikelihoodofgoodgovernment.However,theseparationofpowersbetweenthesethreebranchesofgovernmentwasnotabsolute.Also,therewasthefrequentusageofseveralconstitutionaldevicesthatwereoutofharmonywiththegeniusoftheRomanconstitution.[8]Aconstitutionalcrisisbeganin133BC,asaresultofthestrugglesbetweenthearistocracya

ndthecommonpeople.[9]Thiscrisisultimatelyledto

thecollapseoftheRomanRepublicanditseventualsubversionintoamuch

moreautocraticformofgovernment,theRomanEmpire.[10]

这三类国家机关中在发展中形成了一个复杂的监督和平衡机制,俾可将僭主暴君的统治和腐化的危险最小化,并将实现治世的可能性最大化。然而,这三类国家机关间的权力分立也并非绝对的。一些罗马宪法中的法律制度的频繁使用破坏了罗马宪政的和谐与稳定。在前133年,作为贵族阶层和平民阶层斗争的结果,一次宪法秩序上的危机爆发了。这场危机最终导致罗马共和国的崩溃,并最后形成一个更为独裁的政体:罗马帝国。

Constitutionalhistory(509-133BC)

Atonetime,Romehadbeenruledbyasuccessionofkings.[11]TheRomansbelievedthatthisera,thatoftheRomanKingdom,beganin753BC,andendedin510BC.Afterthemonarchyhadbeenoverthrown,andtheRomanRepublichadbeenfounded,thepeopleofRomebeganelectingtwoRomanConsulseachyear.[12]In501BC,theofficeof"RomanDictator"wascreated.

共和宪政的历史(前509-前133年)

在一段时期里,罗马被世袭的国王所统治。罗马人认为,这个罗马王政时期,自前735年开始,到前510年结束。在推翻君主制之后,建立了罗马共和国。罗马人民开始每年选举两名罗马执政官。在前501年,又创建了“罗马独裁官”这个职位。

Intheyear494BC,thePlebeians(commoners)secededtotheMonsSacer,anddemandedofthePatricians(thearistocrats)therighttoelecttheirownofficials.[13][14]ThePatriciansdulycapitulated,andthePlebeiansendedtheirsecession.

The

Plebeians

called

these

new

officials

"Plebeian

Tribunes",andgavetheseTribunestwoassistants,called

"PlebeianAediles".[15]

在前494年,平民阶层(Plebeians)退守到圣山(MonsSacer)上,向贵族阶层(Patricians)要求选举他们自己官吏的权利。贵族阶层做了适当的妥协,平民阶层遂停止了他们的抗议。平民阶层称这种新的官职为“护民官”(PlebeianTribunes),并为护民官配备两名僚佐,称为平民市政官(PlebeianAediles,又译平民营造官)。

In443BC,theofficeof"RomanCensor"wascreated,[16]andin367BC,PlebeianswereallowedtostandfortheConsulship.TheopeningoftheConsulshiptothePlebeianclassimplicitlyopenedboththeCensorshipaswellastheDictatorshiptoPlebeians.[17]

在前443年,创立了“罗马检察官”的职位,在前367年,允许平民阶层进入执政官的竞选。向平民阶层开放执政官的竞选,意味着检察官职位和独裁官职位都向平民阶层开放了。

In366BC,inaneffortbythePatricianstoreasserttheirinfluenceoverthemagisterialoffices,twonewofficeswerecreated.Whilethesetwooffices,thePraetorshipandt

heCuruleAedileship,wereatfirstopenonlyto

Patricians,withinageneration,theywereopentoPlebeiansaswell.[15]

在前366年,在贵族阶层试图重夺他们对政府官职影响力的背景下,又创立了两个官职:国务官(Praetorship,又译裁判官、小执政官、副执政官)和首席市政官(CuruleAedileship,又译首席营造官),这两个官职最初只向贵族阶层开放,经过一段时间的发展,它们也向平民阶层开放了。

Beginningaroundtheyear350BC,thesenatorsandthePlebeianTribunesbegantogrowcloser.[8]ThesenatebegangivingTribunesmorepower,and,unsurprisingly,theTribunesbegantofeelindebtedtothesenate.[8]AstheTribunesandthesenatorsgrewcloser,PlebeiansenatorsbegantoroutinelysecuretheofficeofTribuneformembersoftheirownfamilies.[18]

大概在前350年开始,元老和护民官开始越走越近,元老院开始给予护民官更多的权力,当然,毫无意外地,护民官也开始感到在元老院处领情不少。当护民官和元老院走得更近时,平民出身的元老开始经常性地把护民官的职位人选局限在自己的家族之中产生。

Alsoaroundtheyear350BC,thePlebeianCouncil(popularassembly)enactedasignificantlaw(the"OvinianLaw")[5]whichtransferred,fromtheConsulstotheCensors,thepowertoappointnewsenators.ThislawalsorequiredtheCensorstoappointanynewlyelectedmagistratetothesenate,[5]whichprobablyresultedinasignificantincreaseinthenumberofPlebeiansenators.[19]

同样大概在350年左右,平民大会通过了一个著名的法案——奥维尼安法,这个法律大大强化了执政官和检察官等官僚的权力,使他们有权任命新的元老。这个法案也许可检察官任命任何新选出的官僚进入元老院,这可能导致了平民出身的元老数目的激增。

This,alongwiththeclosenessbetweenthePlebeianTribunesandthesenate,helpedtofacilitatethecreationofanewPlebeianaristocracy.[19]ThisnewPlebeianaristocracysoonmergedwiththeoldPatricianaristocracy,creatingacombined"Patricio-Plebeian"aristocracy.[20]Theoldaristocracyexistedthroughtheforceoflaw,becauseonlyPatricianshadbeenallowedtostandforhighoffice.Now,however,thenewaristocracyexistedduetotheorganizationofsociety,andassuch,thisordercouldonlybeoverthrownthrougharevolution.[21]

In287BC,thePlebeianssecededtotheJaniculumhill.Toendthesecession,alaw(the"HortensianLaw")waspassed,whichendedtherequirementthatthePatriciansenatorsconsentbeforeabillcouldbebroughtbeforethePlebeianCouncilforavote.[22]ThiswasnotthefirstlawtorequirethatanactofthePlebeianCouncilhavethefullforceoflaw(overbothPlebeiansandPatricians),[23]sincethePlebeianCouncilhadacquiredthispowerin449BC.[23]Theultimatesignificanceoft

hislawwasinthefactthatitrobbedthePatriciansof

theirfinalweaponoverthePlebeians.Theresultwasthattheultimatecontroloverthestatefell,notontotheshouldersofdemocracy,butontothe

shouldersofthenewPatricio-Plebeianaristocracy.[24]TheHortensianLawresolvedthelastgreatpoliticalquestionoftheearlierera,andassuch,noimportantpoliticalchangesoccurredoverthenext150years(between287BCand133BC).[25]Thecriticallawsofthiserawerestillenactedbythesenate.[26]Ineffect,thedemocracywassatisfiedwiththepossessionofpower,butdidnotcaretoactuallyuseit.[26]

TheSenateoftheRomanRepublicwasapoliticalinstitutionintheancientRomanRepublic,however,itwasnotanelectedbody,butonewhosememberswereappointedbytheconsuls,andlaterbythecensors.Afteramagistrateservedhisterminoffice,itusuallywasfollowedwithautomaticappointmenttotheSenate.AccordingtotheGreekhistorianPolybius,ourprincipalsourceontheConstitutionoftheRomanRepublic,theRomanSenatewasthepredominantbranchofgovernment.Polybiusnotedthatitwastheconsuls(thehighest-rankingoftheregularRomanmagistrates)wholedthearmiesandthecivilgovernmentinRome,anditwastheRomanassemblieswhichhadtheultimateauthorityoverelections,legislation,andcriminaltrials.However,sincetheSenatecontrolledmoney,administration,andthedetailsofforeignpolicy,ithadthemostcontroloverday-to-daylife.ThepowerandauthorityoftheSenatederivedfromprecedent,thehighcaliberandprestigeofthe

senators,andtheSenate'sunbrokenlineage,whichdatedbacktothefoundingoftheRepublicin509BC.

罗马共和国的元老院是古罗马共和国的一个政治机关,然而,这个机关却并非是通过选举,而是通过执政官的委任(后期时监察官也可委任)而产生的。对于罗马官僚而言,官职任期结束后,一般自动获得进入元老院的委任许可。按照希腊史学家波利比乌斯(Polybius)的说法,罗马元老院是罗马共和宪政的主要源头,是罗马政权中最主要的国家机关。波利比乌斯(Polybius)提到,罗马执政官统帅罗马军队,署理罗马民政,而元老院这个议事机构则是罗马的最高选举、立法和刑事审判机关。另外,元老院还控制国库、行政和具体对外政策,几乎控制着日常生活的各个方面。元老院的权威产生于惯例、元老的优秀个人能力、和元老院成员的血统传承。这种权威,自从前509年罗马共和肇立之时,便已经开始了。

TheCenturyAssembly(comitiacenturiataor"ArmyAssembly")oftheRomanRepublicwasthedemocraticassemblyoftheRomansoldiers.TheCenturyAssemblywasorganizedasanAssembly,aseveryRomancitizenwiththerequiredwealthcouldvote,regardlessofclass.TheRomanarmywasdividedintounitscalled"Centu

ries",andthesegatheredintotheCentury

Assemblyforlegislative,electoral,andjudicialpurposes.Onlythisassemblycoulddeclarewarorelectthehighest-rankingRomanMagistrates:Consuls,

PraetorsandCensors.[14]TheCenturyAssemblycouldalsopassastatutethatgrantedconstitutionalcommandauthoritytoConsulsandPraetors,andCensorialpowerstoCensors.[14]Inaddition,theCenturyAssemblyservedasthehighestcourtofappealincertainjudicialcases,andratifiedtheresultsoftheCensus.[10]Whilethevotersinthisassemblyworewhiteundecoratedtogasandwereunarmed,whiletakingpartintheAssemblytheywereclassifiedassoldiers,andassuchtheycouldnotmeetinsideofthephysicalboundaryofthecityofRome.[14]ThepresidentoftheCenturyAssemblywasusuallyaConsul(althoughsometimesaPraetor).OnlyConsuls(thehighest-rankingofallRomanMagistrates)couldpresideovertheCenturyAssemblyduringelectionsbecausethehigher-rankingConsulswerealwayselectedtogetherwiththelower-rankingPraetors.Onceeveryfiveyears,afterthenewConsulsfortheyeartookoffice,theypresidedovertheCenturyAssemblyasitelectedthetwoCensors.

罗马共和国的百人团大会(comitiacenturiata或"ArmyAssembly")是罗马士兵(也是公民)组成的民主大会。无论属于哪个等级,每个有足够财产而享有投票权的罗马公民,都有权参加百人团大会。罗马军队由称为“百人团”(Centuries,又译百人队)的编制单位构成,这些百人团在百人团大会中聚集起来,进行立法、选举和司法审判工作。

只有百人团大会有权宣战、选举罗马共和国政权中的高级官吏:执政官(Consuls)、国务官(Praetors,又译法务官、小执政官、副执政官)和监察官。

另外,百人团大会还有权通过律令,将合宪的治国大权授权给执政官和国务官,以及将监察权授权给监察官。

除此以外,百人团大会还作为罗马的最高法庭,聆讯审理某些司法案件。

百人团大会还有批准人口调查结果的权力。

百人团大会投票时,投票者身着白色、无饰边的托迦(togas),不携带武器。andassuchtheycouldnotmeetinsideofthephysicalboundaryofthecityofRome.百人团大会的主席一般是一名执政官(有时也是国务官)。当选举时,只有执政官有权主持百人团会议,这是因为无论是高等级的执政官,还是较低级的国务官,都是同时在百人团大会上选出的。每过五年,在本年度的新执政官履新以后,由他们主持百人团会议选出两名监察官。

TheTribalAssembly(comitiatributa)oftheRomanRepublicwasthedemocraticassemblyofRomancitizens.TheTribalAssemblywasorganizedasanAssembly,andnotasaCouncil.DuringtheyearsoftheRomanRepublic,citizenswereorganizedonthebasisofthirty-fiveTribes.TheTribes

gatheredintotheTribalAssemblyforlegislative,

electoral,andjudicialpurposes.ThepresidentoftheTribalAssemblywasusuallyeitheraConsul(thehighestrankingRomanMagistrate)oraPraetor(thesecond-highestrankingRomanMagistrate).TheTribalAssemblyelectedthree

different

magistrates:

Quaestors,

Curule

Aediles,

and

Military

Tribunes.[21]TheTribalAssemblyalsohadthepowertotryjudicialcases.[22]

罗马共和国的部族大会(Comitiatributa)是罗马公民的民主会议。部族大会以全体会议的方式,而不是委员会的方式召开。在罗马共和时期,市民按照35个部族(Tribes)

组织起来,这些部族在部族大会中共聚一堂,处理立法、选举和司法审判事务。部族大会的主席一般要么是执政官(Consul),要么是国务官(Praetor)。部族大会选举三种官职职位:财务官(Quaestors)、首席市政官(CuruleAediles,又译首席营造官)和军事护民官(MilitaryTribunes)。部族大会也有审判司法案件的权利。

Thethirty-fiveTribeswerenotethnicorkinshipgroups,butratheragenericdivisionintowhichRomancitizensweredistributed.WhentheTribeswerecreatedthedivisionsweregeographical,similartomodernParliamentaryconstituencies.However,sinceonejoinedthesameTribethathisfatherbelongedto,thegeographicaldistinctionswereeventuallylost.[23]Theorderthatthe35Tribesvotedinwasselectedrandomlybylot.Theorderwasnotchosenatonce,andaftereachTribehadvoted,alotwasusedtodeterminewhichTribeshouldvotenext.[24]ThefirstTribeselectedwasusuallythemostimportantTribe,becauseitoftendecidedthematter.ItwasbelievedthattheorderofthelotwaschosenbytheGods,andthus,thatthepositionheldbytheearlyvotingTribeswasthepositionoftheGods.[25]OnceamajorityofTribeshadvotedthesameway,votingended.[8]

35个部族(Tribes)并不是基于亲属血缘关系建立起来的,而是按照罗马公民的居住区域建立起来。部族按照地区划分,这一点类似于现代议会制下的选区。然而,如果一个人加入了与他父亲相同的部族,那么按照地区进行的区分事实上也就失效了。35个部族的投票顺序由抽签随机决定。投票顺序并不是一次性确定的,而是等上一个部族投完票后,再抽签决定下面由哪个部族进行投票。第一个投票的部族往往是最重要的部族,因为这经常对所议事项起到决定作用的投票:当时的人们相信抽签顺序是由诸神选定的,因此,占据较早投票顺序的部族,也就获得了神的眷爱。一旦某种意见所获得的部族投

票达到多数,投票即告终止。

ThePlebeianCouncil(conciliumplebis)wastheprincipalpopulargatheringoftheRomanRepublic.Asthenamesuggests,thePlebeianCouncilwasorganizedasaCouncil,andnotasanAssembly.Itfunct

ionedasagatheringthroughwhichthePlebeians

(commoners)couldpasslaws,electmagistrates,andtryjudicialcases.ThiscouncilhadnopoliticalpoweruntiltheofficesofPlebeianTribuneandPlebeianAedilewerecreatedin494BC,duetothePlebeianSecessionthatyear.[22]

平民委员会(conciliumplebis)主要由罗马共和国中的平民组成。按照字面上的意思,平民委员会以委员会(Council)的形式组织起来,而不是全体大会(Assembly)的形式。这个机构的作用是代表平民阶层通过法律、选举官僚和进行司法审判工作。在前494年,由于平民阶层的退役抗议活动而设立护民官(PlebeianTribune)和平民市政官(PlebeianAedile)之前,这个委员会并没有政治实权。

Accordingtolegend,theRomanKingServiusTulliusenactedaseriesofconstitutionalreformsinthesixthcenturyBC.Oneofthesereformsresultedinthecreationofaneworganizationalunitwithwhichtodividecitizens.This

unit,theTribe,wasbasedongeographyratherthanfamily,andwascreatedtoassistinfuturereorganizationsofthearmy.[17]In471BC,[26]alawwaspassedwhichallowedthePlebeianstobeginorganizingbyTribe.Beforethispoint,theyhadorganizedonthebasisoftheCuria.[22]TheonlydifferencebetweenthePlebeianCouncilafter471BCandtheordinaryTribalAssembly(whichalsoorganizedonthebasisoftheTribes)wasthattheTribesofthePlebeianCouncilonlyincludedPlebeians,whereastheTribesoftheTribalAssemblyincludedbothPlebeiansandPatricians.[22]

按照传说中的说法,罗马王塞尔维乌斯·图里乌斯(ServiusTullius)在前6世纪时进行了变法改革。其中一个改革措施就是设立新的公民组织单位,这种单位即部族(Tribe),是基于地理上的住区而不是家庭血缘来划分的,以便于辅助其军制的改组。在前471年通过了一项法律,允许平民组织部族(Tribe)。在这之前,平民都是按照胞族(Curia,有时直译为库利亚)的方式组织参与国政。在前471年新设的平民委员会与传统的部族大会(TribalAssembly)的唯一区别是:平民委员会中的部族(Tribes)只包括平民,而部族大会(TribalAssembly,ComitiaTributa)中的部族(Tribes)既包括平民,也包括贵族。

ThePlebeianCouncilelectedtwo'PlebeianMagistrates',thePlebeianTribunesandthePlebeianAediles.[26]UsuallythePlebeianTribunepresidedovertheassembly,althoughthePlebeianAedilesometimesdidaswell.

Originally,

statutes

passed

by

the

Plebeian

Council

("Plebiscites")onlyappliedtoPlebeians.[27]Howeverin449BC,a

statuteofanAssemblywaspassedwhichgavePlebiscitesthefullforceoflawoverallRomans(PlebeiansandPatricians).[28]Itwasnotuntil287BC,however,thatthelastmechanismwhichallowedtheRomanSenatetovetoactsofthePlebeianCouncilwasrevoked.After

thispoint,almostalldomesticlegislationcameoutof

thePlebeianCouncil.

平民委员会选出两种“平民官职”:护民官(PlebeianTribunes)和平民市政官(PlebeianAediles)。护民官一般主持平民大会,而平民市政官有时也主持这项工作。最初,由平民委员会(Plebiscites)通过的法律只适用于平民。不过,在前449年通过了一项关于大会的法律,确认平民委员会的立法对全体罗马公民(贵族和平民)都有效。但直到前287年,元老院对平民委员会立法的否决权被废除以后,几乎所有的国内立法才都出自平民委员会的手中。

PraetorwasatitlegrantedbythegovernmentofAncientRometomenactinginoneoftwoofficialcapacities:Thecommanderofanarmy,usuallyinthefield,orthenamedcommanderbeforemusteringthearmy;andanelectedmagistratus(magistrate)assignedvariedduties(perthehistoricalperiod).Thefunctionsofthemagistracy,thepraetura(praetorship),aredescribedbythe

adjective:[1]thepraetoriapotestas(praetorianpower),thepraetoriumimperium(praetorianauthority),andthepraetoriumius(praetorianlaw),thelegalprecedentsestablishedbythepraetori(praetors).Praetorium,asasubstantive,denotedthelocationfromwhichthepraetorexercisedhisauthority,eithertheheadquartersofhiscastra,thecourthouse(tribunal)ofhisjudiciary,orthecityhallofhisprovincialgovernorship.[2]

国务官是古罗马政府的一个头衔,获取这个头衔的人一般有两方面的职权:其一是陆军军团的司令官,或在召集军队前的提名司令官;其二是作为选举而上任的官员,承担大量的权责(在不同的历史时期内各有变动)。这个官职的众多权责,被统归入“国务官”(praetura,praetorship)的范围。这个词一般以形容词形式冠于某词的前面,表示某种事务具有国务官的权威。例如:“国务官权”(praetoriapotestas,praetorianpower),“国务官权威”(praetoriumimperium,praetorianauthority),“国务官法”(praetoriumius,praetorianlaw,又译大法官法、裁判官法)等。“国务官法”是国务官(praetori,praetors)创建的判例法。

Historyofthetitle

TheClassical-eraauthorsdonotdescribetheeventsleadingtothePraetortitleorigination;thetitleandthemagistracyexistedinthetimeofTitusLivius,thechiefRepublicanhistorian.ThewritingsoftheRepublicanstatesmanandattorney,MarcusTulliusCicero,exploredthephilosophyandusesofthetermpraetor.

Theprefixpraeisagoodindicationthatthetitle-holderwasprior,insomeway,insociety.LivymentionsthattheLatiniwereledandgovernedinwarfarebytwoofthem[3]andtheSamnitesbyone.[4]Adictatorwascalledthepraetormaximus.Theuseoftheadjectives(praetorius,praetoricius,praetorianus)inalargenumberofcircumstan

cestestifytoageneralsense.Theleadershipfunctions

ofanycorporatebodyatRomemightbetermedpraetorial.

ThepraetoriapotestasinRepublicanRomewasatfirstheldbytheconsuls.Thesetwoofficials,electedonayearlybasis,inheritedthepoweroftheking.[5]Verylikely,thekinghimselfwasthefirstpraetor,butinwhatsense?ThebestexplanationavailableisthatofCiceroinDelegibus,inwhichheproposesideallawsbasedonRomanconstitutionaltheory:[6]

Regioimperioduosunto,iique<a>praeeundoiudicandoconsulendopraetoresiudicesconsulesappellamino.Militiaesummumiushabento,..."Lettherebetwowiththeauthorityoftheking,andletthembecalledpraetors,judgesandconsulsfromtheirgoingbefore,judgingandconsulting.

Letthemhavethesupremerightofcommandofthemilitary..."

Thisetymologyofpraetorbecameandremainsthestandard.Ciceroconsidersthewordtocontainthesameelementalpartsastheverbpraeire(praeeo:"togobefore,toprecede,toleadtheway").Inexactlywhatwayhegoesbeforedidnotsurvive,butifweinterpretpraetorasleaderweshallprobablynotgofarwrong.

Livyexplains[7]thatintheyear366BCthepraeturawascreatedtorelievetheconsulsoftheirjudicialduties.Thepraetorwas,inEnglish,thechiefjustice,andyetmorethanthat.Theconsulswerehispeers;hewaselectedbythesameelectorateandsworninonthesamedaywiththesameoath.[8]Withthemheretainedtheiusmilitiae.Theconstitutionwasamendedinthiswaytosatisfythepatricians.Onepositionofconsulhadtobeopenedtotheplebeians.Until337BCthepraetorwaschosenonlyfromthepatricians.[9]

FromthenonpraetorsappearfrequentlyinRomanhistory,firstasgeneralsandjudges,thenasprovincialgovernors.BeginninginthelateRepublic,aformerPraetorcouldserveasaPropraetor("inplaceofthePraetor")andactasthegovernorofoneofRome'sprovinces.Propraetorsweremuchindemand.

Praetorsandtheirduties[edit]Republican

Intheyear246BCtheSenatecreatedasecondPraetura.Thereweretworeasonsforthis:torelievethecrushofjudicialbusinessandtogivetheRepublicamagistratewithimperiumwhocouldfieldanarmyinanemergencywhenbothconsulswerefightingafar-offwar.

[edit]Praetorperegrinus

BytheendoftheFirstPunicWar,afourthmagistrateentitledtoholdimperiumappears,thepraetorquiinterperegrinosiusdicit("thepraetorwhoadministersjusticeamongforeigners").AlthoughinthelaterEmpiretheofficewastitledpraetorintercivesetperegrinos("amongcitizensandforeigners,"thatis,havingjurisdictionindisputesbetweencitizensandnoncitizens),inthe3rdcenturyBCRome'sterritorialannexationsandforeignpopulationswereunlikelytorequireanewofficededicatedsolelytothistask.T.CoreyBrennan,inhistwo-volumestudyofthepraetorship,arguesthatduringthemilitary

crisisofthe240sthesecondpraetorshipwascreatedto

makeanotherholderofimperiumavailableforcommandandprovincialadministrationinterperegrinos.DuringtheHannibalicWar,thepraetorperegrinuswasfrequentlyabsentfromRomeonspecialmissions.Theurbanpraetormoreoftenremainedinthecitytoadministerthejudicialsystem.[12]

[edit]Praetorurbanus

Thepraetorurbanuspresidedincivilcasesbetweencitizens.ThesenaterequiredthatsomeseniorofficerremaininRomeatalltimes.Thisdutynowfelltothepraetorurbanus.Asisimpliedbythename,hewasallowedtoleavethecityonlyforuptotendaysatatime.HewasthereforegivenappropriatedutiesatRome.HesuperintendedtheLudiApollinares.Hewasalsothechiefmagistrate

for

the

administration

of

justice

and

promulgated

the

Praetor'sEdict.TheseEdictswerestatementsofpraetor'spolicyastojudicialdecisionstobemadeduringhistermofoffice.ThepraetorhadsubstantialdiscretionregardinghisEdict,butcouldnotlegislate.InasensethecontinuingEdictscametoformacorpusofprecedents.ThedevelopmentandimprovementofRomanLawowesmuchtothewiseuseofthispraetorialdiscretion.[13]

[edit]Additionalpraetors

TheexpansionofRomanauthorityoverotherlandsrequiredtheadditionof

praetors.Twowerecreatedin227BC,fortheadministrationofSicilyandSardinia,andtwomorewhenthetwoSpanishprovinceswereformedin197BC.LuciusCorneliusSullasuccessfullytransferredadministrationoftheprovincestoformerconsulsandpraetors,thusincreasingthenumberofordinarypraetorstoeight.JuliusCaesarraisedthenumbertoten,thenfourteen,andfinallytosixteen.[14]

[edit]Imperial

AugustusmadechangesthatweredesignedtoreducethePraetortobeinganimperialadministratorratherthanamagistrate.TheelectoralbodywaschangedtotheSenate,whichwasnowaninstrumentofimperialratification.Theestablishmentoftheprincipatewastherestorationofmonarchyunderanothername.Theemperorthereforeassumedthepowersonceheldbythekings,butheusedtheapparatusoftherepublictoexercisethem.Forexample,theemperorpresidedoverthehighestcourtsofappeal.

Theneedforadministratorsremainedjustasacute.AfterseveralchangesAugustusfixedthenumberattwelve.UnderTiberiusthereweresixteen.Asimperialadministratorstheirdutiesextendedtomatterstherepublicwouldhaveconsideredminima.TwopraetorswereappointedbyClaudiusformattersrelatingtoFideicommissa(trusts),whenthebusinessinthatdepartmentofthelawhadbecomeconsiderable,butTitusreducedthenumbertoone;andNerva

addedaPraetorforthedecisionofmattersbetweentheFiscus(treasury)andindividuals.MarcusAurelius[15]appointedaPraetorformattersrelatingtotutela(guardianship).

Praetorsasjudges

Romancourtcasesfellintothetwobroadcategoriesofcivilorcriminaltrials.T

heinvolvementofaPraetorineitherwasasfollows.

[edit]Actions

Inanactio,whichwascivil,thePraetorcouldeitherissueaninterdictum(interdict)forbiddingsomecircumstanceorappointaiudex(judge).Proceedingsbeforethepraetorweretechnicallysaidtobeiniure.Atthisstage,thePraetorwouldestablishaformuladirectingtheiudexastotheremedytobegivenifhefoundthatcertaincircumstancesweresatisfied;forinstance,"LetXbeiudex.Ifitappearsthatthedefendantoughttopay10,000sestercestotheplaintiff,lettheiudexcondemnthedefendanttopay10,000sestercestotheplaintiff.Ifitdoesnotsoappear,lettheplaintiffabsolvehim."[16]Aftertheywerehandedovertotheiudex,theywerenolongeriniurebeforethePraetor,but"apudiudicem".Theiudiciumofthe

iudexwasbinding.BythetimeofDiocletian,however,thistwo-stageprocesshadlargelydisappeared,andthePraetorwouldeitherhearthewholecaseinpersonorappointadelegate(aiudexpedaneus),takingstepsfortheenforcementofthedecision;theformulawasreplacedbyaninformalsystemofpleadings.[17]

DuringthetimeoftheRomanRepublictheUrbanPraetorallegedlyissuedanannualedict,usuallyontheadviceofjurists(sincethePraetorhimselfwasnotnecessarilyeducatedinthelaw),settingoutthecircumstancesunderwhichhewouldgrantremedies.ThelegalprovisionsarisingfromthePraetor'sEdictwereknownasiushonorarium;intheorythePraetordidnothavepowertoalterthelaw,butinpracticetheEdictalteredtherightsanddutiesofindividualsandwaseffectivelyalegislativedocument.InthereignofHadrian,however,thetermsoftheEdictweremadepermanentandthePraetor'sdefactolegislativerolewasabolished.[18]

[edit]Quaestionesperpetuae

ThePraetorsalsopresidedattheQuaestionesperpetuae(whichwerecriminalproceedings),so-calledbecausetheywereofcertaintypes,withaPraetorbeingassignedtoonetypeonapermanentbasis.ThePraetorsappointedjudgeswhoactedasjurorsinvotingforguiltorinnocence.Theverdictwaseitheracquittalorcondemnation.

Thesequaestioneslookedintocriminapublica,"crimesagainstthepublic",suchaswereworthyoftheattentionofaPraetor.Thepenaltyonconvictionwasusuallydeath,butsometimesotherseverepenaltieswereused.InthelateRepublicthepubliccrimeswereRepetundae,[19]Ambitus,[20]Majestas,[21]andPeculatus,[22]which,whenthereweresixPraetors,wereassignedtofouroutofthenumber.SullaaddedtotheseQuaestionesthoseofFalsum,[23]DeSicariisetVeneficis,[24]andDeParricidis[25]andforthispurposeheaddedtwooraccordingtosomeaccountsfourpraetors.

[edit]Outdooractions

ThePraetorwhenheadministeredjusticesatonasellacurulisinatribunal,whichwasthatpartofthecourtwhichwasappropriatedtothePraetorandhisassessorsandfriends,andisopposedtothesubsel

lia,orpartoccupiedbytheiudices(judges),andothers

whowerepresent.ButthePraetorcoulddomanyministerialactsoutofcourt,orasitwasexpressedeplano,orexaequoloco,whichtermsareopposedtoetribunaliorexsuperioreloco:forinstance,hecouldincertaincasesgivevaliditytotheactofmanumissionwhenhewasout-of-doors,asonhisroadto

thebathortothetheatre.

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