Unit 10 Student Motivation To Learn.
学生学习动机
Motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want ) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction . Student motivation has to do with students’ desire to participate in the learning process. What factors influence the development of students’ motivation? How can motivation to learn be fostered? The article gives the explanations.
动机是一种激励或者刺激人们行为并指引行为方向的内部状态或状况（有时也是一种需要，渴望，或者意愿）。学生的学习动机必须和他们参与学习过程的意愿联系在一起。哪些因素会影响学生学习动机的养成呢？怎样才能培养学习动机呢？这篇文章给出了详细的说明。
Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of their environment. As one author puts it, \"Rarely does one hear parents complain that their pre-schooler is 'unmotivated' \" (James Raffini 1993).
不管是婴儿还是小孩，他们看起来都会受好奇心的推动，受探索自然，融入并探索自然的强烈需要的驱使。象一个作家所提的，“没有谁听家长说他们的小孩在学前是不积极的。
Unfortunately, as children grow, their passion for learning frequently seems to shrink. Learning often becomes associated with drudgery instead of delight. A
large number of students--more than one in four--leave school before graduating. Many more are physically present in the classroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves fully in the experience of learning.
不幸的是，随着孩子的成长，他们学习的热情降低了。学习经常变成了一件苦差事而并非乐事。有超过1/4的大量学生辍学。而更多的是身在曹营，心在汉；他们根本不能全身心地投入学习。
Awareness of how students' attitudes and beliefs about learning develop and what facilitates learning for its own sake can assist educators in reducing student apathy.
了解学生关于学习发展的态度和信念，及凭自学兴趣的情况，这将帮助教育工作者降低学生学习的冷漠态度。
What is student motivation?
什么是学生的动机？
Student motivation naturally has to do with students' desire to participate in the learning process. But it also concerns the reasons or goals that underlie their involvement or noninvolvement in academic activities. Although students may be equally motivated to perform a task, the sources of their motivation may differ.
学生学习的动机通常与学生在学习的过程中参与学习意愿有关。但也与他们参与或不
参与学习活动的原因和目标有关。即使学生们可能受驱使去干某事，但是他们学习的动机是不同的。
A student who is INTRINSICALLY motivated undertakes an activity \"for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes\" (Mark Lepper 1988). An EXTRINSICALLY motivated student performs \"IN ORDER TO obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself,\" such as grades, stickers, or teacher approval (Lepper).
一个具有内在动机的学生，他从事活动是为了活动本身，为了活动过程中的乐趣，为了能从中学到什么，或是为了活动所引发的优越感。而处于一个处于外在动因的学生，“他往往是为了得到某种奖赏，或是避免一些外在惩罚。”诸如成绩、难题和老师的认可。
The term MOTIVATION TO LEARN has a slightly different meaning. It is defined by one author as \"the meaningfulness, value, and benefits of academic tasks to the learner--regardless of whether or not they are intrinsically interesting\" (Hermine Marshall 1987). Another notes that motivation to learn is characterized by long-term, quality involvement in learning and commitment to the process of learning (Carole Ames 1990).
学习动机这个词的意义稍有差别。有位作家做了这样的定义，学习动因就是学术活动对于学习者产生的意义、价值和利益，不管学生是否发自内心的兴趣。而另外的则认为，学习动机的特点是长期的，积极地投入学习和到付诸学习过程中去。
What factors influence the development of students’ motivation?
影响学生动机发展的因素有哪些？
According to Jere Brophy (1987), motivation to learn is a competence acquired \"through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers).\"
根据Jere的观点，学习动机是一种能力，主要是从实践中获得。但是，大多数是从直接受到表扬、愿望交流和直接说明或是被其他有影响的人激发出来的。
Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning. When parents nurture their children's natural curiosity about the world by welcoming their questions, encouraging exploration, and familiarizing them with resources that can enlarge their world, they are giving their children the message that learning is worthwhile and frequently fun and satisfying.
孩子的家庭环境是塑造他们学习态度的第一个地方。当父母通过欢迎问题，鼓励探索和熟悉那些能够扩大他们视野的知识的方式来养育他们的孩子对于这个世界的好奇心。他们告诉孩子，学习是有意义的、充满乐趣的，能得到满足的事情。
When children are raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning. Conversely, when children do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly diminished.
如果孩子所处的家庭能培育他形成自身价值、能力、自律和自我评价，那么他们就会容易接受学习中挑战，相反，当孩子做了，而没有看到他们自己能力，他们将怠慢他们在学业上的动力，这样他们在处理困难与失败的能力将会大大降低。
Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their
school-related successes and failures. The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.
一旦孩子开始上学，他们就会对学校的成功与失败形成自身的价值观，孩子们总结他们成功和失败的根源，对他们是如何处理学习中的情况具有重要的意义。
The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence (Raffini). As Deborah Stipek (1988) notes, \"To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn.\"
对教师来说，他们对教学和他们学生所持有的期望值也同样有重要的作用。正如Deborah所说的“在很大程度上，如果老师希望他们学习，那他们就会学习。”
Schoolwide goals, policies, and procedures also interact with classroom climate and practices to affirm or alter students' increasingly complex learning-related attitudes and beliefs.
学校的目标、政策和程序也同样影响着课堂扭转，并且日益改变和复杂的作业有影响着学生的关学习态度与信念的改观。
And developmental changes comprise one more strand of the motivational web. For example, although young children tend to maintain high expectations for success even in the face of repeated failure, older students do not. And although younger children tend to see effort as uniformly positive, older children view it as a \"double-edged sword\" (Ames). To them, failure following high effort appears to carry more negative implications--especially for their self-concept of ability--than failure that results from minimal or no effort.
发展变化使动因走向又包含了更多的可能。例如，在连续遭遇失败后，虽然年龄小的孩子对成功仍然保持很高的期望值，而大的学生则不会如此。即使较小的孩子仍能保持乐观的态度继续努力，但年龄大的孩子却把它视为双刃剑，对他们来讲做出很大的努力而失败比很少努力或根本不努力而失败似乎带来更大的负面影响，特别是他们对自己能力的评价。
Are there advantages to intrinsic motivation?
是否内在动机具有优势？
Does it really matter whether students are primarily intrinsically or extrinsically oriented toward learning? A growing body of evidence suggests that it does.
搞清楚最初是由内因与外因地对待学习真的很重要吗？补充的系列部分表明了是这样
的。
When intrinsically motivated, students tend to employ strategies that demand more effort and that enable them to process information more deeply (Lepper).
在内在动机的驱使下，学生倾向于更加努力其所学的东西要牢固些。
J. Condry and J. Chambers (1978) found that when students were confronted with complex intellectual tasks, those with an intrinsic orientation used more logical information-gathering and decision-making strategies than did students who were extrinsically oriented.
J. Condry and J. Chambers (1978)发现：当学生们面对复杂的智力任务时，相对于那些外因其作用的学生，内因其作用的学生在搜集信息方面更具逻辑性，判断也更具策略。
Students with an intrinsic orientation also tend to prefer tasks that are moderately challenging, whereas extrinsically oriented students gravitate toward tasks that are low in degree of difficulty. Extrinsically oriented students are inclined to put forth the minimal amount of effort necessary to get the maximal reward (Lepper).
同时，内因起作用的学生倾向于更具挑战性的尝试；相反，在外因驱使下的学生则会选择一些低难度的事情，并且他们喜欢做一些低投入高产出的事情。
Although every educational activity cannot, and perhaps should not, be
intrinsically motivating, these findings suggest that when teachers can capitalize on existing intrinsic motivation, there are several potential benefits.
虽然每个教学活动不可能，也不应该从内在来激励学生；但是，研究表明，当老师利用学生已有的内在动机，是有一定好处的。
How can motivation to learn be fostered in the school setting?
在学校如何在早期培养学习动机？
Although students' motivational histories accompany them into each new classroom setting, it is essential for teachers to view themselves as \"ACTIVE SOCIALIZATION AGENTS capable of stimulating...student motivation to learn\" (Brophy 1987).
虽然学生的动机历程会伴随他们每个学习层次，但对于老师来说，将他们自己视为“能够激励学生学习能动性的社会主体”这点相当重要。
Classroom climate is important. If students experience the classroom as a caring, supportive place where there is a sense of belonging and everyone is valued and respected, they will tend to participate more fully in the process of learning.
课堂气氛非常重要。如果学生所处是一个团结友爱的课堂里面，在这里，每个人的都具有归属感并且每个人的自我价值，自我尊重得以实现，那么他们将有更大经历投入到学
习中去。
Various task dimensions can also foster motivation to learn. Ideally, tasks should be challenging but achievable. Relevance also promotes motivation, as does \"contextualizing\" learning, that is, helping students to see how skills can be applied in the real world (Lepper). Tasks that involve \"a moderate amount of discrepancy or incongruity\" are beneficial because they stimulate students' curiosity, an intrinsic motivator (Lepper).
大量不同的任务也能培养学生的学习动机。在理想情况下，尝试应当是具有挑战性，而不只是完成。具有社会实用性的事也促进动机的形成，如情景学习，它将帮助学生看到：在现实世界中去的技能是如何被应用的。具有适度差异或不协调成分的尝试是有益的，因为，他们能激发学生的好奇心，内在动机。
In addition, defining tasks in terms of specific, short-term goals can assist students to associate effort with success (Stipek). Verbally noting the purposes of specific tasks when introducing them to students is also beneficial (Brophy 1986).
同时，具有特殊的、短期效果的目标能帮助学生将努力与成功联系起来。利用口头的形式向学生介绍布置这种特殊任务，这是有好处的。
Extrinsic rewards, on the other hand, should be used with caution, for they have the potential for decreasing existing intrinsic motivation.
另一方面，外在的奖励应该慎重，因为这对他们的内在动机是有影响的。
What takes place in the classroom is critical, but \"the classroom is not an island\" (Martin Maehr and Carol Midgley 1991). Depending on their degree of congruence with classroom goals and practices, schoolwide goals either dilute or enhance classroom efforts. To support motivation to learn, school-level policies and practices should stress \"learning, task mastery, and effort\" (Maehr and Midgley) rather than relative performance and competition.
虽然教室里发生的点点滴滴至关重要，但课堂不是孤岛。学校的目标将冲淡或增强班级的努力，这取决于它与不同等级班机目标和练习的一致性。为了增强学习动机，学校政策与实践水平应与“学习，主要尝试，努力”相适应，而不是与之无关的表现与竞争。
What can be done to help unmotivated student?
如何帮助被动学习的学生?
A first step is for educators to recognize that even when students use strategies that are ultimately self-defeating (such as withholding effort, cheating, procrastination, and so forth), their goal is actually to protect their sense of self-worth (Raffini).
对教育工作者而言首先要认识到当学生运用一些弄巧成搓的小伎俩（如，不努力、欺骗、拖延等等），这其实是他们在保护自身价值的意识。
A process called ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING, which involves modeling, socialization, and practice exercises, is sometimes used with discouraged students.
The goals of attribution retraining are to help students to (1) concentrate on the tasks rather than becoming distracted by fear of failure; (2) respond to frustration by retracing their steps to find mistakes or figuring out alternative ways of approaching a problem instead of giving up; and (3) attribute their failures to insufficient effort, lack of information, or reliance on ineffective strategies rather than to lack of ability (Brophy 1986).
一种被称为“归因训练”（涉及到榜样，社会化以及实践）有时被运用到灰心的学生身上，归因训练的目的是帮助学生：（1）将精力集中到任务的根本上来，而不是因害怕失败而心灰意冷；（2）回溯过程发现错误或另辟蹊径解决问题，而不是放弃；（3）找到失败的所在，努力不够吗？缺乏信息？策略不够？而不是缺乏能力。
Other potentially useful strategies include the following: portray effort as investment rather than risk, portray skill development as incremental and domain-specific, focus on mastery (Brophy 1986).
其他一些重要的手段包括以下几个方面：将努力视为投资而不是冒险，将能力增长视为对特定领域掌握能力的增强(Brophy 1986)。
Because the potential payoff--having students who value learning for its own sake--is priceless, it is crucial for parents, teachers, and school leaders to devote themselves fully to engendering, maintaining, and rekindling students' motivation to learn.
因为有为自身而学习的意识是非常难能可贵，所以，对于家长，老师及学校领导而言，
很重要的一点就是致力于激起，保持及重新唤起学生的学习动力。
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